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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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ITALIAN BEES 




QUEEN. 





WORKER. 



DRONE. 



MANUAL 



THE APIARY, 



A. J. COO K, 



Professor of Entomology, 



MICHIGAN STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 



FIFTH EDITION, 

REVISED, ENLARGED, MOSTLY RE-WRITTEN AND 
BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED. 



SIETVIEIINrTIEa: THOUSAND. 






CHICAGO, ILLS.: 
THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, 
18 8 0. 

9^ 



•07 4,7 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by 

THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 






TO THE 

REVEREND L. L. LANGSTROTH, 

THE . 

INVENTOR OF THE MOVABLE FRAME HIVE, 

THE 

HUBER OF AMERICA, AND THE GREATEST MASTER OP 

PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE, AS RELATING TO 

APICULTURE, IN THE WORLD ; THIS MANUAL 

IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED 

BY 

THE AUTHOR. 



PREFACE 



In 1876, in response to a desij-e frequently expressed by 
my apiarian friends, principally my students, I published an 
edition of 3,000 copies of the little unpretending " Manual of 
the Apiary." This was little more than the course of lectures 
which I gave annually at the College. In less than two years 
this was exhausted, and the second edition, enlarged, revised, 
and much more fully illustrated, was issued. So great was 
the sale that in less than a year this was followed by the 
third and fourth editions, and, in less than two years, 
the fifth edition (seventh thousand) was issued. Each edition 
has been enlarged and changed, to keep pace with our rapidly 
advancing art. 

It is the desire and determination of both publishers and 
author, to make this work the exponent of the most improved 
apiculture ; and no pains will be spared, that each succeeding 
edition may embody the latest improvements and discoveries 
wrought out by the practical man and the scientist, as gleaned 
from the excellent home and foreign apiarian and scientific 
periodicals. A. J. COOK. 

State Agricultural College, Lansing, Mich. 



CONTEN TS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Who May Keep Bees 11 

Specialists 11 

Amateurs 11 

Who are Specially Interdicted 12 

Inducements to Bee-Keeping 12 

Recreation 12 

Profit 13 

Excellence as an Amateur Pursuit 15 

Adaptation to Women 15 

Improves the Mind and Observation 17 

Yields Delicious Food 17 

What Successful Bee-Keeping Requires 18 

Mental Effort 18 

Experience Necessary 18 

Learn from Others 18 

Aid from Conventions 19 

Aid from Bee Papers 19 

American Bee Journal 19 

Gleanings in Bee Culture 20 

Bee-Keepers' Magazine 21 

Books for the Apiarist 21 

Langstroth on the Honey-Bee 21 

Quinby's Mysteries of Bee-Keeping 22 

King's Text-Book 22 

A, B, C of Bee Culture 22 

Foreign Works 22 

Promptitude 53 

Enthusiasm 24 

:p.a.:r,t i. 

Natural History of the Honey Bee. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Bee's Place in the Animal Kingdom 27 

The Branch of the Honey-Bee 27 

The Class of the Honey-Bee 28 

The Order of the Honey-Bee 30 

The Sub-Order of the Honey-Bee 31 



11. CONTENTS. 

The Family of the Honey-Bee 34 

The Genus of the Honey-Bee , 38 

The Species of the Honey-Bee 41 

The Varieties of the Honey-Bee 41 

German, or Black Bee 47 

Italian, or Ligurian 41 

Fasciata, or Egyptian 43 

Other Varieties 43 

Bibliography 44 

Valuable Books on Entomology 47 

CHAPTEE II. 

Anatomy and Physiology .48 

Anatomy of Insects 48 

Organs of the Head 48 

Appendages of the Thorax 55 

Internal Anatomy 56 

Secretory Organs 61 

Sex Organs 62 

Transformations ,66 

The Egg 67 

The Larva 68 

The Pupa 68 

The Imago Stage 70 

Incomplete Transformations 70 

Anatomy and Physiology of the Honey Bee 71 

Three Kinds of Bees in Each Colony 71 

The Queen 71 

The Drone 86 

The Neuters or Workers. 90 

CHAPTER III. 

Swarming, or Natural Method of increase 101 

CHAPTEE IV: 

Products of Bees, their Origin and Function 104 

Honey 104 

Wax 106 

Pollen, or Bee-Bread Ill 

Propolis .' 112 

Bibliography 113 

X^J^X^T XX. 

The Apiary, its Cake and Management 115 

INTRODUCTION. 

Preparation 117 

Read a Good Manual 117 

Visit some Apiarist 117 



CONTENTS. 111. 

Take a College Course. 118 

Decide on a Plan 118 

How to Procure our Bees 118 

Kind of Bees to Purchase ' 119 

In What Kind of Hives 119 

When to Purchase 119 

How Much to Pay 120 

Where to Locate 120 

CHAPTER V. 

Hives and Boxes 122 

Box Hives 122 

Movable Comb Hives 123 

The Langstroth Hive 123 

Character of the Hive 124 

The Bottom Board 127 

The Cover 129 

The Frames .132 

, How to Construct the Frames 133 

A Block for making Frames 134 

Cover for Frames 136 

Division Board 137 

The Huber Hive 138 

Apparatus for Securing Comb Honey 141 

Boxes 142 

Small Frames or Sections 144 

Bequisites of Good Frames 144 

Description 144 

How to Place Sections in Position 147 

Sections in Frames 147 

Sections in Backs 149 

CHAPTER VI. 

Position and Arrangement of the Apiary 152 

Position 152 

Arrangement of Ground 152 

Preparation for each Colony — 153 

CHAPTER VII. 

To Transfer Bees 156 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Feeding and Feeders 159 

How Much to Feed 159 

How to Feed ..160 

CHAPTER IX. 

Queen Rearing 163 

How to Rear Queens . . 163 

Nuclei 165 

Shall we Clip the Queen's Wing? 1 68 



IV. CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER X. 

Increase of Colonies 171 

Swarming 171 

Hiving Swarms 173 

To Prevent Second Swarms 175 

To Prevent Swarming 176 

How Best to Increase 177 

Dividing 177 

How to Divide 177 

CHAPTER XI. 

Italians and Italianizing 180 

All Should Keep only Italians .183 

How to Italianize 183 

How to Introduce a Queen 183 

To Get Italian Queens 185 

Rearing and Shipping Queens 186 

To Ship Queens 186 

To Move Colonies 187 

CHAPTER XII. 

Extracting and the Extractors 188 

Honey Extractor 188 

What Style to Buy 189 

Use of the Extractor 191 

When to use the Extractor 192 

How to Extract 194 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Handling Bees 195 

The Best Bee Veil 196 

To Quiet Bees 197 

Bellows Smoker 198 

The Quinby Smoker " 198 

The Bingham Smoker 199 

How to Smoke Bees 201 

To Cure Stings 201 

The Sweat Theory 201 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Comb Foundation 203 

History 203 

American Foundation 204 

How Foundation is Made 206 

To Secure the Wax Sheets 206 

Use of Foundation 207 

To Fasten the Foundation 209 

Save the Wax 211 

Methods 211 



CONTENTS. V. 

CHAPTER XV. 

Marketing Honey 213 

How to Invigorate the Market 213 

Extracted Honey 214 

How to Tempt the Consumer 214 

Comb Honey 215 

Rules to be Observed 215 

CHAPTER XVI. 

Honey Plants 218 

What are the Valuable Honey Plants? 220 

Description with Practical Remarks 222 

April Plants 223 

May Plants 225 

June Plants 228 

July Plants 237 

August and September Plants 242 

Books on Botany 244 

Practical Conclusions 244 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Wintering Bees 246 

The Cause of Disastrous Wintering 246 

Requisite to Safe Wintering — Good Food 248 

Secure Late Breeding 249 

To Secure and Maintain Proper Temperature 249 

Box for Packing 250 

Chaff Hives.. 251 

Wintering in Cellar or House 252 

Burying Bees * 254 

Spring Dwindling 254 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

The House Apiary 255 

Description 255 

Are they Desirable 256 

The Case as it Xow Stands 256 

CHAPTER XIX. 

Evils that Confront the Apiarist 258 

Robbing 258 

Disease 259 

Foul Brood 259 

Remedies 260 

Enemies of Bees 262 

The Bee Moth 262 

History 266 

Remedies 266 

Bee Killer 267 



VI. CONTENTS. 

Bee Louse 268 

Important Suggestion 269 

Bee Hawk 269 

Tachina Fly 270 

Spiders 271 

Ants 271 

Wasps 271 

The King Bird 272 

Toads 272 

Mice 272 

CHAPTEB XX. 

Calendar and Axioms . 274 

Work lor Different Months 274 

January 274 

February 274 

March 274 

April 275 

May 275 

J une 275 

July 275 

August 275 

September 276 

October 276 

November 276 

December 276 

Axioms 277 

APPENDIX. 

History of Movable Frames , 278 

Lecanium Tulipiferse 286 

Natural History of 287 

Motherwort as a Honey Plant 289 

Description 291 

The Sour- Wood Tree 292 

The Japan Medlar 293 

The Stinging Bug 293 

The Southern Bee-Killers 297 

Honey-Comb Coral 301 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Trachea 28 

Respiratory Apparatus of a Bee. 29 

Bee's Wings 38 

Head of Drone 39 

Head of Worker 39 

Head of Bee 49 

Thorax of Bee 55 

Nervous System of Drone 58 

Alimentary Canal 60 

Male Organs of Bee 63 

Queen Organs 61 

Larva of Bee 68 

Pupa of Bee 69 

Queen Bee 72 

Labium of Queen 73 

Part of Queen's Leg 74 

Drone 86 

Part of Drone's Leg 87 

Worker Bee 90 

Tongue of Worker Bee facing 91 

Jaw of Queen, Drone and Worker 92 
Part of Leg of Worker— outside.. 93 

Part of Leg of Worker— inside 93 

Anterior Leg of Worker 94 

Sting of Worker, with Lancets 95 

Egg and Brood 97 

Bee, showing Wax Segments 100 

Wax Scales 106 

Honey-Comb 109 

Langstroth Hive 124 

Body of Hive 125 

Bevel Gauge 126 

Bottom-Board 128 

Two-Story Hive 130 

Cover to Hive 131 

Frame 133 

with Cross-Section of Top-Bar. 134 

Block for making Frames 135 

Division-Board 137 

Part of Quinby Hive 139 

Part of Bingham Hive 140 

Glass Honey.Box 142 

Isham Honey Box 143 

Harbison Section Frame-. 143 

Chisel 144 

Block for Section making 145 

Hetherington Separator 146 

Dovetailed Section 146 

Phelps Section 147 

Section Frame 148 

Sections in Frame 149 

Southard's Section Rack 150 

Wheeler's Section Rack 150 

Hive in Shade of Evergreen 155 

Feeder 160 

Simplicity Feeder 161 

Queen-cell Inserted in Comb 167 

Shipping Queen Cage 1R7 

Peabody's Extractor 189 

Small Piece Comb-holders '. . . 190 

Knife for Uncapping 191 

Knife with Curved Point 191 

Bee- Veil 196 

Quinby Smokers 199 

Bingham Smoker 199 

Comb Foundation 203 

Comb Foundation Machine 205 



67. Comb Foundation Cutter 206 

68. Block for Fastening Foundation .210 

69. Presser for Block 211 

70. Wax Extractor 212 

71. Prize Crate 216 

72. Heddon Crate 217 

73. Maple 222 

74. Willow 223 

75. Judas Tree 224 

76. American Wistaria 225 

77. Chinese Wistaria 226 

78. Barberry 226 

79. White Sage 227 

80. White or Dutch Clover 228 

81. Alsike Clover 229 

82. Melilot Clover 230 

83. Borage 230 

84. Mignonette 231 

85. Okra 231 

86. Mint 232 

87. Pollen of Milkweed 233 

88. Black Mustard 233 

89. Rape 234 

90. Tulip 235 

91. Teasel 236 

92. Cotton 236 

93. Basswood 237 

94. Figwort 238 

95. Button-Bush 240 

96. Rocky Mountain Bee Plant 239 

97. Boneset 241 

98. Buckwheat 242 

99. Golden Rod .243 

100. Sun Flower 243 

101. Packing-Box for Winter 250 

102. Gallery of Moth Larva 262 

103. Loth Larva in Comb 263 

104. Moth Larvae 264 

105. Moth Cocoons 264 

100. Moth with Wings Spread 264 

107. Male and Female Moths 265 

108. Bee-Killer 268 

109. Bee Louse 268 

110. TachinaFly 270 

111. MunnHive 279 

112. Munn's Triangular Hive 280 

113. Lecanium Tulipif eras 288 

114. Stem of Motherwort 289 

115. Fruit and Leaf of Motherwort. . .290 

116. Motherwort Bloom 291 

117. Sour-Wood 292 

118. Stinging-Bug— natural size 294 

119. Magnified twice 294 

120. Beak, magnified 294 

121. Antenna, magnified 295 

122. Anterior leg, exterior view. . . .295 

123. " " interior view.... 295 

124. Claw, extended 296 

125. Middle leg, magnified 296 

126. Southern Bee-Killer 297 

127. Wings extended 297 

128. Head of 298 

129. Wing of 299 

131. Foot of 298 

130. Wing of Asilus Missouriensis 300 

132. Honey-Comb Coral 301 

133. Wasp-stone Coral 302 



INTRODUCTION. 



WHO MAY KEEP BEES. 

SPECIALISTS. 

Any person who is cautious, observing, and prompt to do 
whatever the needs of his business require, with no thought 
of delay, may make apiculture a specialty, with almost cer- 
tain prospects of success. He must also be willing to work 
with Spartan energy during the busy season, and must persist, 
though sore discouragement, and even dire misfortune, 
essay to thwart his plans and rob him of his coveted gains. 
As in all other vocations, such are the men who succeed in 
apiculture. I make no mention of capital to begin with, or 
territory on which to locate ; for men of true metal — men 
whose energy of mind and body bespeak success in advance 
— will solve these questions long before their experience and 
knowledge warrant their assuming the charge of large apiaries. 

AMATEURS. 

Apiculture, as an avocation, may be safely recommended 
to those of any business or profession, who possess the above 
named qualities, and control a little space for their bees, a few 
rods from street and neighbor, or a flat roof whereupon hives 
may securely rest (C. F. Muth, of Cincinnati, keeps his bees 
very successfully on the top of his store, in the very heart of 
a large city), and who are able to devote a little time, when 
required, to care for their bees. The amount of time will 
of course vary with the number of colonies kept, but with 
proper management this time may be granted at any period of 
the day or week, and thus not interfere with the regular busi- 
ness. Thus residents of country, village, or city, male or 
female, who may wish to be associated with and study natural 
objects, and add to their income and pleasure, will find here 
an ever-waiting opportunity. To the ladies, shut out from 
fresh air and sunshine, till pallor and languor point sadly to 



12 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

departing health and vigor, and to men the nature of whose 
business precludes air and exercise, apiculture cannot be too 
highly recommended as an avocation. 

WHO ARE SPECIALLY INTERDICTED. 

There are a few people, whose systems seem to be specially 
susceptible to the poison intruded with the bee's sting. 
Sometimes such persons, if even stung on the foot, will be so 
thoroughly poisoned that their eyes will swell so they cannot 
see, and will suffer with fever for days, and, very rarely, indi- 
viduals are so sensitive to this poison that a bee-sting proves 
fatal. I hardly need say, that such people should never keep 
bees. Many persons, among whom were the noted Klein and 
Gunther, are at first very susceptible to the poison, but 
spurred on by their enthusiasm, they persist, and soon be- 
come so innoculated that they experience no serious injury 
from the stings. It is a well-recognized fact, that each suc- 
cessive sting is less powerful to work harm. Every bee- 
keeper is almost sure to receive an occasional sting, though 
with the experienced these are very rare, and the occasion 
neither of fear nor anxiety. 

INDUCEMENTS TO BEE-KEEPING. 

RECREATION. 

Among the attractive features of apiculture, I mention the 
pleasure which it offers its votaries. There is a fascination 
about the apiary which is indescribable. Nature is always 
presenting the most pleasurable surprises to those on the alert 
to receive them. And among the insect hosts, especially 
bees, the instincts and habits are so inexplicable and marvel- 
ous, that the student of this department of nature never 
ceases to meet with exhibitions that move him, no less with 
wonder than with admiration. Thus, bee-keeping affords 
most wholesome recreation, especially to any who love to look 
in upon the book of nature, and study the marvelous pages 
she is ever waiting to present. To such, the very fascination 
of their pursuit is of itself a rich reward for the time and 
labor expended. I doubt if there is any other class of manual 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 13 

laborers who engage in their business, and dwell upon it, with 
the same fondness as do bee-keepers-. Indeed, to meet a 
scientific bee-keeper is to meet an enthusiast. A thorough 
study of the wonderful economy of the hive must, from its 
very nature, go hand-in-hand with delight and admiration. I 
once asked an extensive apiarist, who was also a farmer, why 
he kept bees. The answer was characteristic : " Even if I 
could not make a good deal the most money with my bees, I 
should still keep them for the real pleasure they bring me." 
But yesterday I asked the same question of Prof. Daniels, 
President of the Grand Rapids schools, whose official duties 
are very severe. Said he : " For the restful pleasure which 
I receive in their management." I am very sure, that were 
there no other inducement than that of pleasure, I should be 
slow to part with these models of industry, whose marvelous 
instincts and wondrous life-habits are ever ministering to my 
delight and astonishment. 

A year ago, I received a visit from my old friend and Col- 
lege classmate, 0. Clute, of Keokuk, Iowa. Of course I 
took him to see our apiary, and as we looked at the bees and 
their handiwork, just as the nectar from golden-rod and asters 
was flooding the honey-cells ; he became enraptured, took my 
little " Manual of the Apiary" home with him, and at once 
subscribed for the old American Bee Journal. He very 
soon purchased several colonies of bees, and has found so 
much of pleasure and recreation in the duties imposed by his 
new charge, that he has written me several times, expressing 
gratitude that I had led him into such a work of love and 
pleasure. 

PROFITS. 

The profits, too, of apiculture, urge its adoption as a pur- 
suit. When we consider the comparatively small amount of 
capital invested, the relatively small amount of labor and ex- 
pense attending its opperations, we are surprised at the 
abundant reward that is sure to wait upon its intelligent 
practice. I do not wish to be understood here as claiming 
that labor — yes, real hard, back-aching labor — is not required 
in the apiary. The specialist, with his hundred or more colo- 
nies, will have, at certain seasons, right hard and vigorous 



14 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

work. Yet this will be both pleasant and healthful, and will' 
go hand-in-hand with thought, so that brain and muscle will 
work together. Yet this time of hard, physical labor will 
only continue for five or six months, and for the balance of 
the year the apiarist has or may have comparative leisure. 
Nor do I think that all will succeed. The fickle, careless, in- 
dolent, heedless man, will as surely fail in apiculture, as in 
any other calling. But I repeat, in the light of many years 
of experience, where accurate weight, measure, and counting 
of change has given no heed to conjecture, that there is no- 
manual labor pursuit, where the returns are so large, when 
compared with the labor and expense. 

An intelligent apiarist may invest in bees any spring in 
Michigan, with the absolute certainty of more than doubling 
his investment the first season ; while a net gain of 400 per 
cent, brings no surprise to the experienced apiarists of our 
State. This of course applies only to a limited number of 
colonies. Nor is Michigan superior to other States as a loca- 
tion for the apiarist. During the past season, the poorest I 
ever knew, our fifteen colonies of bees in the College apiary, 
have netted us over $200. In 1876, each colony gave a net 
return of $24.04, while in 1875, our bees gave a profit, above 
all expense, of over 400 per cent, of their entire value in the 
spring. Mr. Fisk Bangs, who graduated at our College one 
year since, purchased last spring seven colonies of bees. The 
proceeds of these seven colonies have more than paid all ex- 
penses, including first cost of bees, in honey sold, while there 
are now sixteen colonies, as clear gain, if we do not count the 
labor, and we hardly need do so, as it has in no wise interfered 
with the regular duties of the owner. Several farmers of our 
State who possess good apiaries and good improved farms, 
have told me that their apiaries were more profitable than all 
the remainder of their farms. Who will doubt the profits of 
apiculture in the face of friend Doolittle's experience ? He 
has realized $6,000, in five years, simply from the honey taken 
from fifty colonies. This $6,000 is in excess of all expenses 
except his own time. Add to this the increase of stocks, 
and then remember that one man can easily care for 100 colo- 
nies, and we have a graphic picture of apiarian profits. Bee- 
keeping made Adam Grimm a wealthy man. It brought to- 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 15 

Capt. Hetherington over $10,000 as the cash receipts of a 
single year's honey-crop. It enabled Mr. Harbison, so it is 
reported, to ship from his own apiary, eleven car-loads of 
comb-honey as the product of a single season. What greater 
recommendation has any pursuit ? Opportunity for money- 
making, even with hardships and privations, is attractive 
and seldom disregarded ; such opportunity with labor that 
brings, in itself, constant delight, is surely worthy of 
attention. 

EXCELLENCE AS AN AMATEUR PURSUIT. 

Again, there is no business, and I speak from experience, 
that serves so well as an avocation. It offers additional funds 
to the poorly paid, out-door air to the clerk and office-hand, 
healthful exercise to the person of sedentary habits, and su- 
perb recreation to the student or professional man, and 
especially to him whose life-work is of that dull, hum-drum, 
routine order that seems to rob life of all zest. The labor, 
too, required in keeping bees, can, with a little thought and 
management, be so planned, if but few colonies are kept, as 
not to infringe upon the time dem'anded by the regular occu- 
pation. Indeed, I have never been more heartily thanked, 
than by such persons as named above, and that, too, because 
I called them to consider — which usually means to adopt — 
the pleasing duties of the apiary. 

ADAPTATION TO WOMEN. 

Apiculture may also bring succor to those whom society 
has not been over-ready to favor — our women. Widowed 
mothers, dependent girls, the weak and the feeble, all may 
find a blejsing in the easy, pleasant, and profitable labors ot 
the apiary. Of course, women who lack vigor and health, 
can care for but very few colonies, and must have sufficient 
strength to bend over and lift the small-sized frames of comb 
when loaded with honey, and to carry empty hives. Wi'th 
the proper thought and management, full colonies need never 
be lifted, nor work done in the hot sunshine. Yet right here 
let me add, and emphasize the truth, that only those who 
xo III let energetic thought and skillful plan, and above all 
promptitude and persistence, make up for physical weak- 



16 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

ness, should enlist as apiarists. Usually a stronger body, 
and improved health, the results of pure air, sunshine, and 
exercise, will make each successive day's labor more easy, and 
will permit a corresponding growth in the size of the apiary 
for each successive season. One of the most noted apiarists, 
not only in America but in the world, sought in bee-keeping 
her lost health, and found not only health, but reputation and 
influence. Some ot the most successful apiarists in our 
country are women. Of these, many were led to adopt the 
pursuit because of waning health, grasping at this as the last 
and successful weapon with which to vanquish the grim mon- 
ster. Said "Cyula Linswik" — whose excellent and beautifully 
written articles have so often charmed the readers of the bee 
publications, and who has had five years of successful experience 
as an apiarist — in a paper read before our Michigan Conven- 
tion of March, 1877: "I would gladly purchase exemption 
from in-door work, on washing-day, by two days' labor among 
the bees, and I find two hours' labor at the ironing-table more 
fatiguing than two hours of the severest toil the apiary can 
exact. * * * I repeat, that apiculture offers to many 
women not only pleasure but profit. * * * Though the 
care of a few colonies means only recreation, the woman who 
experiments in bee-keeping somewhat extensively, will find 
that it means, at some seasons, genuine hard work. * * * 
There is risk in the business, I would not have you ignore 
this fact, but an experience of five years has led me to be- 
lieve that the risk is less than is generally supposed." Mrs. 
L. B. Baker, of Lansing, Michigan, who has kept bees very 
successfully for four years, read an admirable paper before 
the same Convention, in which she said: "But I can say, 
having tried both," (keeping boarding-house and apiculture,) 
" I give bee-keeping the preference, as more profitable, health- 
ful, independent and enjoyable. * * * I find the labors 
of the apiary more endurable than working over a cook-stove 
in-doors, and more pleasant and conducive to health. * * * 
I believe that many of our delicate and invalid ladies would 
find renewed vigor of body and mind in the labors and recrea- 
tions of the apiary. * * * By beginning in the early 
spring, when the weather was cool and the work light, I be- 
came gradually accustomed to out-door labor, and by mid- 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 17 

summer found myself as well able to endure the heat of the 
sun as my husband, who has been accustomed to it all his life. 
Previously, to attend an open-air picnic was to return with a 
head-ache. * * * My own experience in the apiary has 
been a source of interest and enjoyment far exceeding my 
anticipations." Although Mrs. Baker commenced with but 
two colonies of bees, her net profits the first season were over 
$100 ; the second year but a few cents less than $300 ; and 
the third year about $250. " The proof of the pudding is 
in the eating ;" so, too, such words as given above, show that 
apiculture offers special inducements to our sisters to become 
either amateur or professional apiarists. 

IMPROVES THE MIND AND THE OBSERVATION. 

Successful apiculture demands close and accurate observa- 
tion, and hard, continuous thought and study, and this, too, 
in the wondrous realm of nature. In all this, the apiarist 
receives manifold and substantial advantages. In the culti- 
vation of the habit of observation, a person becomes constantly 
more able, useful and susceptible to pleasure, results which 
also follow as surely on the habit of thought and study. It 
is hardly conceivable that the wide-awake apiarist, who is so 
frequently busy with his wonder-working comrades of the 
hive, can ever be lonely, or feel time hanging heavily on his 
hands. The mind is occupied, and there is no chance for 
ennui. The whole tendency, too, of such thought and study, 
where nature is the subject, is to refine the taste, elevate the 
desires, and ennoble manhood. Once get our youth, with 
their susceptible natures, engaged in such wholesome study, 
and we shall have less reason to fear the vicious tendencies of 
the street, or the luring vices and damning influences of the* 
saloon. Thus apiculture spreads an intellectual feast, that 
even the old philosophers would have coveted ; furnishes the 
rarest food for the observing faculties, and, best of all, by 
keeping its votaries face to face with the matchless creations 
of the All Father, must draw them toward Him "who went 
about doing good," and in "whom there was no guile." 

YIELDS DELICIOUS POOD. 

A last inducement to apiculture, certainly not unworthy of 
mention, is the offerings it brings to our tables. Health, yea, 



18 MANUAL OF THE API All 1'. 

our very lives, demand that we should eat sweets. It is a 
truth that our sugars, and especially our commercial syrups, 
are so adulterated as to be often poisonous. The apiary, in 
lieu of these, gives us one of the most delicious and whole- 
some of sweets, which has received merited praise, as food fit 
for the gods, from the most ancient time till the present day. 
To ever have within reach the beautiful, immaculate comb, 
or the equally grateful nectar, right from the extractor, is 
certainly a blessing of no mean order. We may thus supply 
our families and friends with a most necessary and desirable 
food element, and this with no cloud of fear from vile, poi- 
sonous adulterations. 



WHAT SUCCESSFUL BEE-KEEPING REQUIRES. 

MENTAL EFFORT. 

No one should commence this business who is not willing 
to read, think and study. To be sure, the ignorant and un- 
thinking may stumble on success for a time, but sooner or 
later, failure will set her seal upon their efforts. Those of 
our apiarists who have studied the hardest, observed the 
closest, and thought the deepest, have even passed the late 
terrible winters with but slight loss. 

Of course the novice will ask, How and what shall I 
study ? 

EXPERIENCE NECESSARY. 

Nothing will take the place of real experience. Commence 
with a few colonies, even one or two is best, and make the 
bees your companions at every possible opportunity. Note 
every change, whether of the bees, their development, or 
work, and then by earnest thought strive to divine the cause. 

LEARN FROM OTHERS. 

Great good will also come from visiting other apiarists. 
Note their methods and apiarian apparatus. Strive by con- 
versation to gain new and valuable ideas, and gratefully adopt 
whatever is found, by comparison, to be an improvement upon 
your own past system and practice. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 19 

AID FROM CONVENTIONS. 

Attend conventions whenever distance and means render 
this possible. Here you will not only be made better by social 
intercourse with those whose occupation and study make them 
sympathetic and congenial, but you will find a real conserva- 
tory of scientific truths, valuable hints, and improved instru- 
ments and methods. And the apt attention — rendered 
possible by your own experience — which you will give to 
essays, discussions and private conversations, will so enrich 
your mind, that you will return to your home encouraged, and 
able to do better work, and to achieve higher success. I have 
attended nearly all the meetings of the Michigan Convention, 
and never yet when I was not well paid for all trouble and 
expense by the many, often very valuable, suggestions which 
I received. These I would carry home, and test as com- 
manded by the Apostle : " Prove all things and hold fast that 
which is good." 

AID FROM BEE PUBLICATIONS. 

Every apiarist, too, should take and read at least one of the 
three excellent bee publications that are issued in our coun- 
try. It has been suggested that Francis Huber's blindness 
was an advantage to him, as he thus had the assistance of two 
pairs of eyes, his wife's and servant's, instead of one. So, 
too, of the apiarist who reads the bee publications. He has 
the aid of the eyes, and the brains, too, of hundreds of intel- 
ligent and observing bee-keepers. Who is it that squanders 
his money on worse than useless patents and fixtures ? He 
who "cannot afford" to take a bee-journal. 

It would be invidious and uncalled for to recommend any 
one of these valuable papers to the exclusion of the others. 
Each has its peculiar excellences, and all who can, may well 
secure all of them to aid and direct their ways. 



AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL. 



i 



This, the oldest bee publication, is not only peculiar for its 
age, but for the ability with which it has been managed, with 
scarce any exception, even from its first appearance. Samuel 
Wagner, its founder and long its editor, had few superiors in 
breadth of culture, strength of judgment, and practical and 



20 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

historic knowledge of apiculture// With what pleasure we 
remember the elegant, really classic, diction of the editorials, 
the dignified bearing, and freedom from asperities which 
marked the old American Bee Journal as it made its monthly- 
visits fresh from the editorial supervision of Mr. Samuel 
Wagner. Some one has said that there is something in the 
very atmosphere of a scholarly gentleman, that impresses all 
who approach him. I have often thought, as memory reverted 
to the old American Bee Journal, or as I have re-read the 
numbers which bear the impress of Mr. Wagner's superior 
learning, that, though the man is gone, the stamp of his noble 
character and classical culture is still on these pages, aiding, 
instructing, elevating, all who are so fortunate as to possess 
the early volumes of this periodical. I am also happy to 
state that the American Bee Journal is again in good hands, 
and that its old prestige is fully restored. Mr. Newman is 
an experienced editor, a man of excellent judgment and ad- 
mirable balance, a man who demonstrates his dislike of crim- 
inations and recriminations by avoiding them ; who has no 
special inventions or pet theories to push, and is thus almost 
sure to be disinterested and unbiased in the advice he offers ;. 
who lends his aid and favor to our Conventions, which do so 
much to spread apiarian knowledge. And when I add, that 
he brings to his editorial aid the most able, experienced and 
educated apiarists of the world, I surely have spoken high 
hut just praise, of the American Bee Journal, whose enviable 
reputation extends even to distant lands. It is edited by 
Thomas G. Newman, at Chicago. 

GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE. 

This periodical makes up for its brief history of only five 
years, by the vigor and energy which has characterized it from 
the first. Its editor is an active apiarist, who is constantly 
experimenting ; a terse, able writer, and brimming-full of good 
nature and enthusiasm. I am free to say, that in practical 
apiculture I am more indebted to Mr. Root than to any other 
one person, except Rev. L. L. Langstroth. I also think that, 
with few exceptions, he has done more for the recent advance- 
ment of practical apiculture than any other person in our 
country. Yet I have often regretted that Mr. Root is so 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 21 

inimical to conventions, and that he often so stoutly praises 
that with which he has had so brief an experience, and must 
consequently know so little. This trait makes it imperative 
that the apiarist read discriminately, and then decide for him- 
self. In case of an innovation, wait for Mr. Root's continued 
approval, else prove its value before general adoption. This 
sprightly little journal is edited by A. I. Root, Medina, Ohio. 

bee-keeper's magazine. 

I have read this periodical less, and, of course know less 
of it than of the others. It is well edited, and certainly has 
many very able contributors. Both Mr. King and Mr. Root 
deal largely in their own wares, and, of course, give space to 
their advertisement, yet, in all my dealings with them, and I 
have dealt largely with Mr. Root, I have ever found them 
prompt and reliable. The Magazine is edited by A. J. King, 
New York. 

BOOKS FOR THE APIARIST. 

Having read very many of the books treating of apiculture, 
both American and foreign, I can freely recommend such a 
course to others. Each book has peculiar excellences, and 
each one may be read with interest and profit. 

LANGSTROTH ON THE HONEY BEE. 

Of course, this treatise will ever remain a classic in bee- 
literature. I cannot over-estimate the benefits which I have 
received from the study of its pages. It was a high, but de- 
served encomium, which J. Hunter, of England, in his 
"Manual of Bee-Keeping," paid to this work: "It is un- 
questionably the best bee-book in the English language." 

The style of this work is so admirable, the subject matter 
so replete with interest, and the entire book so entertaining, 
that it is a desirable addition to any library, and no thought- 
ful, studious apiarist can well be without it. It is especially 
happy in detailing the methods of experimentation, and in 
showing with what caution the true scientist establishes prin- 
ciples or deduces conclusions. The work is wonderfully free 
from errors, and had the science and practice of apiculture 
remained stationary, there would have been little need of 



22 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

another work ; but as some of the most important improve- 
ments in apiculture are not mentioned, the book alone would 
be a very unsatisfactory guide to the apiarist of to-day. 

quinby's mysteries of bee-keeping. 

This is a plain, sensible treatise, written by one of America's 
most successful bee-keepers. The work has just been revised 
by L. C. Root, who has fully maintained its excellent charac- 
ter. The admirable style and eminent practicality of this 
work has lost nothing in the revision. Mr. Root is the son- 
in-law of the late Mr. Quinby, and was fully advised of the 
latest views and discoveries of the great bee-keeper. To 
these he has added the rich results of his own experience, as 
well as the latest discoveries and methods of the most progress- 
ive apiarists. 

king's text-book. 

This is a compilation of the above works, and has recently 
been revised, so that it is abreast of the times. It is to be 
regretted that the publisher did not take more pains with his 
work, as the typography is very poor. 

A B C. OF BEE-CULTURE. 

This work was issued in numbers, but is now complete. It 
is arranged in the convenient form of our cyclopaedias, is 
printed in fine style, on beautiful paper, and is well illustrated. 
I need hardly say that the style is pleasing and vigorous. 
The subject matter is fresh, and embodies the most recent 
discoveries and inventions pertaining to bee-keeping. That it 
may be kept abreast of apiarian progress, the type is to be 
kept in position, so that each new discovery may be added as 
soon as made. 

FOREIGN WORKS. 

Bevan, revised by Munn, is exceedingly interesting, and 
shows by its able historical chapters, admirable scientific dis- 
quisitions, and frequent quotations and references to practical 
and scientific writers on bees and bee-keeping, both ancient 
and modern, that the writers were men of extensive reading 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 23 

and great scientific ability. The book is of no practical value 
to us, but to the student it will be read with great interest. 
Next to Langstroth, I value this work most highly of any in 
my library that treat of bees and bee-keeping, if I may ex- 
cept back volumes of the bee-publications. 

"The Apiary, or Bees, Bee-Hives and Bee Culture," by 
Alfred Neighbour, London, is a fresh, sprightly little work, 
and as the third edition has just appeared, is, of course, up 
with the times. The book is in nice dress, concise, and very 
readable, and I am glad to commend it. 

A less interesting work, though by no means without merit, 
is the "Manual of Bee-Keeping," by John Hunter, London. 
This is also recent. I think these works would be received with 
little favor among American apiarists. They are exponents 
of English apiculture, which in method would seem clumsy 
to Americans. In fact, I think I may say that in implements 
and perhaps I may add methods, the English, French, Ger- 
mans and Italians, are behind our American apiarists, and 
hence their text-books and journals compare illy with ours. 
I believe the many intelligent foreign apiarists who have come 
to this country and are now honored members of our own 
fraternity, will sustain this position. Foreign scientists are 
ahead of American, but we glean and utilize their facts and 
discoveries as soon as made known. Salicylic acid is discov- 
ered by a German to be a remedy for foul brood, yet ten 
times as many American as foreign apiarists know of this 
and practice by the knowledge. In practical fields, on the 
other hand, as also in skill and delicacy of invention, we are, 
I think, in advance. So our apiarists have little need to go 
abroad for either books or papers. 

PROMPTITUDE. 

Another absolute requirement of successful bee-keeping, 
is prompt attention to all its varied duties. Neglect is the 
rock on which many bee-keepers, especially farmers, find too 
often that they have wrecked their success. I have no doubt 
that more colonies die from starvation, than from all the 
bee maladies known to the bee-keeper. And why is this ? 
Neglect is the apicide. I feel sure that the loss each season 
by absconding colonies is almost incalculable, and whom must 



24 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

we blame ? Neglect. The loss every summer by enforced 
idleness of queen and workers, just because room is denied 
them, is very great. Who is the guilty party ? Plainly, 
neglect. In these and in a hundred other ways, indifference 
to the needs of the bees, which require but a few moments, 
greatly lessen the profits of apiculture. If we would be suc- 
cessful, promptitude must be our motto. Each colony of bees 
requires but very little care and attention. Our every inter- 
est demands that this be not denied, nor even granted grudg- 
ingly. The very fact that this attention is slight, renders it 
more liable to be neglected ; but this neglect always involves 
loss — often disaster. 

ENTHUSIASM. 

Enthusiasm, or an ardent love of its duties is very desira- 
ble, if not an absolute requisite, to successful apiculture. To 
be sure, this is a quality whose growth, with even slight op- 
portunity, is almost sure. It only demands perseverance. 
The beginner, without either experience or knowledge, may. 
meet with discouragements — unquestionably will. Swarms 
will be lost, colonies will fail to winter, the young apiarist 
will become nervous, which fact will be noted by the bees 
with great disfavor, and if opportunity permits, will meet re- 
proof more sharp than pleasant. Yet, with persistence, all 
these difficulties quickly vanish. Every contingency will be 
foreseen and provided against, and the myriad of little workers 
will become as manageable and may be fondled as safely as a 
pet dog or cat, and the apiarist will minister to their needs 
with the same fearlessness and self-possession that he does to 
his gentlest cow or favorite horse. Persistence in the face 
of all those discouragements which are so sure to confront 
inexperience, will surely triumph. In-sooth, he who ap- 
preciates the beautiful and marvelous, will soon grow to love 
his companions of the hive, and the labor attendant upon their 
care and management. Nor will this love abate till it has 
kindled into enthusiasm. 

True, there may be successful apiarists who are impelled 
by no warmth of feeling, whose superior intelligence, sys- 
tem and promptitude, stand in lieu of and make amends 
for absence of enthusiasm. Yet I believe such are rare, and 
certainly they work at great disadvantage. 



PAET FIEST. 



NATURAL HISTORY 



OF 



THE HONEY BEE. 



NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE BEE'S PLACE IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 

It is estimated by Heer and other eminent naturalists, that 
there are more than 250,000 species of living animals. It 
will be both interesting and profitable to look in upon this 
vast host, that we may know the position and relationship of 
the bee to all this mighty concourse of life. 

BRANCH OP THE HONEY-BEE. 

The great French naturalist, Cuvier, a friend of Napoleon 
I., grouped all animals which exhibit a ring structure into one 
branch, appropriately named Articulates, as this term indi- 
cates the jointed or articulated structure which so obviously 
characterizes most of the members of this group. 

The terms joint and articulation, as used here, have a tech- 
nical meaning. They refer not only to the hinge or place of 
union of two parts, but also to the parts themselves. Thus, 
the parts of an insect's legs, as well as the surfaces of union, 
are styled joints or articulations. All apiarists who have 
examined carefully the structure of a bee, will at once pro- 
nounce it an Articulate. Not only is its body, even from 
head to sting, composed of joints, but by close inspection we 
find the legs, the antennae, and even the mouth-parts, like- 
wise, jointed. 

In this branch, too, we place the Crustacea — which includes 
the rolicking cray-fish or lobster, so indifferent as to whether 
he moves forward, backward or sidewise, the shorter crab, the 
sow-bug, lively and plump, even in its dark, damp home under 
old boards, etc., and the barnacles, which fasten to the bot- 
tom of ships, so that vessels are often freighted with life 
within and without. 

The worms, too, are Articulates, though in some of these, 
as the leech, the joints are very obscure. The bee, then, 
which gives us food, is related to the dreaded tape-worm with 
its hundred of joints, which, mayhaps, robs us of the same 



28 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

food after we have eaten it, and the terrible pork-worm or 
trichina, which may consume the very muscles we have de- 
veloped in caring for our pets of the apiary. 

The body-rings of Articulates form a skeleton, firm as in 
the bee and lobster, or more or less soft as in the worms. 
This skeleton, unlike that of Vertebrates or back-bone ani- 
mals, to which we belong, is outside, and thus serves to pro- 
tect the inner, softer parts, as well as to give them attach- 
ment, and to give strength and solidity to the animal. 

This ring-structure, so beautifully marked in our golden- 
banded Italians, usually makes it easy to separate, at sight, 
animals of this branch from the Vertebrates, with their usually 
bony skeleton ; from the less active Molluscan branch, with 
their soft, sack-like bodies, familiar to us in the snail, the 
clam, the oyster, and the wonderful cuttle-fish — the devil-fish 
of Victor Hugo — with its long, clammy arms, strange ink- 
bag, and often prodigious size ; from the Radiate branch, with 
its elegant star-fish, delicate but gaudy jelly fish, and coral 
animals, the tiny architects of islands and even continents ; 
and from the lowest, simplest, Protozoan branch, which in- 
cludes animals so minute that we owe our very knowledge of 
them to the microscope, so simple that they have been 
regarded as the apron-strings which tie plants to animals. 

THE CLASS OP THE HONEY-BEE. 

Our subject belongs to the class Insecta, which is mainly 
characterized by breathing air usually through a very compli- 
cated system of air-tubes. These tubes (Fig. 1), which are con- 

Fig. 1. 




A Trachea, magnified. 

stantly branching, and almost infinite in number, are very 
peculiar in their structure. They are formed of a spiral 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



29 



thread, and thus resemble a hollow cylinder formed by closely 
winding a fine wire spirally about a pipe-stem, so as to cover 
it, and then withdrawing the latter, leaving the wire un- 
moved. Nothing is more surprising and interesting, than 
this labyrinth of beautiful tubes, as seen in dissecting a bee 
under the microscope. I have frequently detected myself 
taking long pauses, in making dissections of the honey-bee, as 
my attention would be fixed in admiration of this beautiful 
breathing apparatus. In the bee these tubes expand into large 

Fig. 2. 




Bespiratoi-y Apparatus of Bee., magnified. — After Duncan. 

lung-like sacks (Fig. 2,f), one each side of the body. Doubtless 
some of my readers have associated the quick movements and 
surprising activity of birds and most mammals with their 



30 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

well-developed lungs, so, too, in such animals as the bees, we 
see the relation between this intricate system of air-tubes — 
their lungs — and the quick, busy life which has been proverb- 
ial of them since the earliest time. The class Insecta also 
includes the spiders, scorpions, with their caudal sting so* 
venomous, and mites, which have in lieu of the tubes, lung- 
like sacks, and the myriapods, or thousand-legged worms — 
those dreadful creatures, whose bite, in case of the tropical 
centipeds or flat species, have a well-earned reputation of 
being poisonous and deadly. 

The class Insecta does not include the water-breathing 
Crustacea, with their branchiae or gills, nor the worms, which 
have no lungs or gills but their skin, if we except some ma- 
rine forms, which have simple dermal appendages, which 
answer to branchiae. 

ORDER OP THE HONEY-BEE. 

The honey-bee belongs to the order Hexapods, or true In- 
sects. The first term is appropriate, as all have in the imago 
or last stage, six legs. Nor is the second term less applica- 
ble, as the word insect comes from the Latin and means to 
cut in, and in no other articulates does the ring structure ap- 
pear so marked upon merely a superficial examination. More 
than this, the true insects when fully developed have, unlike 
all other articulates, three well-marked divisions of the body 
(Fig. 2), namely : the head (Fig. 2, a), which contains the 
antennae (Fig. 2, d), the horn-like appendages common to all 
insects ; eyes (Fig. 2, e) and mouth organs ; the thorax (Fig. 
2, b), which bears the legs (Fig. 2, g), and wings, when they 
are present ; and lastly, the abdomen (Fig. 2, c), which, 
though usually memberless, contains the ovipositor, and when 
present, the sting. Insects, too, undergo a more striking 
metamorphosis than do most animals. When first hatched 
they are worm-like and called larvae (Fig. 12), which means 
masked ; afterward they are frequently quiescent, and would 
hardly be supposed to be animals at all. They are then 
known as pupae, or as in case of bees as nymphs (Fig. 13). 
At last there comes forth the imago with compound eyes, an- 
tennae and wings. In some insects the transformations are 
said to be incomplete, that is the larva, pupa and imago differ 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 31 

little except in size, and that the latter possesses wings. We 
see in our bugs, lice, locusts and grasshoppers, illustrations of 
insects with incomplete transformations. In such cases there 
is a marked resemblance from the egg to the adult. 

As will be seen by the above description the spiders, which 
have only two divisions to their bodies, only simple eyes, no 
antennae, eight legs, and no transformations (if we except the 
partial transformations of the mites), as also the myriapods,. 
which have no marked divisions of the body, and no com- 
pound eyes — which are always present in the mature insect — 
many legs and no transformations, do not belong to the order 
Insects. 

SUB-ORDER OP THE HONEY BEE. 

The honey bee belongs to the sub-order Hymenoptera (from 
two Greek words meaning membrane and wings), which also 
includes the wasps, ants, ichneumon-flies and saw-flies. This 
group contains insects which possess a tongue by which they 
may suck (Fig. 20, a), and strong jaws (Fig. 21) for biting. 
Thus the bees can sip the honeyed sweets of flowers, and also 
gnaw away mutilated comb. They have, besides, four wings, 
and undergo complete tranformations. 

There are among insects strange resemblances. Insects of 
one sub-order will show a marked likeness to those of another. 
This is known as mimicry, and sometimes is wonderfully 
striking between very distant groups. Darwin and Wallace 
suppose it is a developed peculiarity, not always possessed by 
the species, and comes through the laws of variation, and nat- 
ural selection to serve the purpose of protection. Now, right 
here we have a fine illustration of this mimicry. Just the 
other day I received through Mr. A. I. Root, an insect which 
he and the person sending it to him supposed to be a bee, and 
desired to know whether it was a mal-formed honey-bee or 
some other species. Now, this insect, though looking in a 
general way much like a bee, had only two wings, had no 
jaws, while its antennae were closer together in front and 
mere stubs. In fact, it was no bee at all, but belonged to the 
sub-order Diptera, or two-wing flies. I have received several 
similar insects, with like inquiries. Among Diptera there are 
several families, as the (Estridge or bot-flies, the Syrphidae — 



32 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

a very useful family, as the larvae or maggots live on plant- 
lice — whose members are often seen sipping sweets from 
flowers, or trying to rob honey and other bees — the one re- 
ferred to above belonged to this family — and the Bombyliidae, 
which in color, form and hairy covering are strikingly like 
wild and domesticated bees. The maggots of these feed on 
the larvae of various of our wild bees, and of course the 
mother fly must steal into the nests of the latter to lay her 
eggs. So in these cases, there is seeming evidence that the 
mimicry may serve to protect these fly-tramps, as they steal 
in to pilfer the coveted sweets or lay the fatal eggs. Possi- 
bly, too, they may have a protective scent, as I have seen 
them enter a hive in safety, though a bumble-bee essaying to 
do the same, found the way barricaded with myriad cimeters 
each with a poisoned tip. 

Some authors have placed Coleoptera or beetles as the high- 
est of insects, others claim for Lepidoptera or butterflies and 
moths a first place, while others, and with the best of rea- 
sons, claim for Hymenoptera the highest position. The moth i& 
admired for the glory of its coloring and elegance of its form, 
the beetle for the luster and brilliancy of its elytra or wing- 
covers ; but these insects only revel in nature's wealth, and 
live and die without labor or purpose. Hymenoptera usually 
less gaudy, generally quite plain and unattractive in color, are 
yet the most highly endowed among insects. They live with 
a purpose in view, and are the best models of industry to be 
found among animals. Our bees practice a division of labor ; 
the ants are still better political economists, as they have a. 
specially endowed class in the community who are the sol- 
diers, and thus are the defenders of each ant-kingdom. Ants 
also conquer other communities, take their inhabitants cap- 
tive and reduce them to abject slavery — requiring them to 
perform a large portion, and sometimes the whole labor of the 
community. Ants tunnel streams, and in the tropics some 
leaf-eating species have been observed to show no mean order 
of intelligence, as some ascend trees to cut off the leafy 
twigs, while others remain below, and carry these branches 
through their tunnels to their under-ground homes. 

The parasitic Hymenoptera, are so called because they lay 
their eggs in other insects, that their offspring may have 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 33 

fresh meat not only at birth, but so long as they need food, as 
the insect fed upon generally lives till the young parasite, 
which is working to disembowel it, is full-grown. Thus this 
steak is ever fresh as life itself. These parasitic insects show 
wondrous intelligence, or sense development, in discovering 
this prey. I have caught ichneumon-flies — a family of these 
parasites — boring through an eighth or quarter-inch of solid 
beech or maple wood, and upon examination I found the pros- 
pective victim further on in direct line with the insect auger, 
which was to intrude the fatal egg. I have also watched ich- 
neumon-flies depositing eggs in leaf-rolling caterpillars, so sur- 
rounded with tough hickory leaves that the fly had to pierce 
several thicknesses to place the egg in its snugly-ensconced 
victim. Upon putting these leaf -rolling caterpillars in a box, 
I reared, of course, the ichneumon-fly and not the moth. And 
is it instinct or reason that enables these flies to gauge the 
number of their eggs to the size of the larva which is to re- 
ceive them, so that there may be no danger of famine and 
starvation, for true it is that while small caterpillars will re- 
ceive but one egg, large ones may receive several. How 
strange, too, the habits of the saw-fly, with its wondrous in- 
struments more perfect than any saws of human workman- 
ship, and the gall-flies, whose poisonous sting as they fasten 
their eggs to the oak, willow or other leaves, causes the ab- 
normal growth of food for the still unhatched young. The 
providing and caring for their young, which are at first help- 
less, is peculiar among insects, with slight exception, to the 
Hymenoptera, and among all animals is considered a mark 
of high rank. Such marvels of instinct, if we may not call 
it intelligence, such acumen of sense perception, such habits 
— that must go hand-in-hand with the most harmonious' of 
communities known among animals, of whatever branch — all 
these, no less than the compact structure, small size and 
specialized organs of nicest finish, more than warrant that 
grand trio of American naturalists, Agassiz, Dana and Pack- 
ard, in placing Hymenoptera as first in rank among insects. 
As we shall detail the structure and habits of the highest of 
the high — the bees — in the following pages, I am sure no one 
will think to degrade the rank of these wonders of the ani- 
mal kingdom. 



34 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

FAMILY OP THE HONEY-BEE. 

The honey-bee belongs to the family Apidas, of Leach, 
which includes not only the hive bee, but all insects which 
feed their helpless young, or larvae, entirely on pollen, or honey 
and pollen. 

The insects of this family have broad heads, elbowed anten- 
nae (Fig. 2, d) which are usually thirteen-jointed in the males, 
and only twelve-jointed in the females. The jaws or mandi- 
bles (Fig. 21) are very strong, and often toothed ; the tongue 
or ligula (Fig. 20, a), as also the second jaws or maxillae 
(Fig. 20, c), one each side the tongue, are long, though in 
some cases much shorter than in others, and frequently the 
tongue when not in use is folded back, once or more, under 
the head. All the insects of this family have a stiff spine 
on all four of the anterior legs, at the end of the tibia, or the 
third joint from the body, called the tibial spur, and all, ex- 
cept the genus Apis, which includes the honey-bee, in which 
the posterior legs have no tibial spurs, have two tibial spurs 
on the posterior legs. All of this family except one parasitic 
genus, have the first joint or tarsus of the posterior foot, 
much widened, and this together with the broad tibia 
(Fig. 2, A) is hollowed out (Fig. 22, p), forming quite a basin 
or basket on the outer side, in nearly all the species ; and gen- 
erally, this basket is made deeper by a rim of stiff hairs. 
These receptacles or pollen baskets are only found of course 
on such individuals of each community as gather pollen. A 
few of the Apidas — thieves by nature — cuckoo-like, steal un- 
bidden into the nests of others, usually bumble-bees, and 
here lay their eggs. As their young are fed and fostered by 
another, they gather no pollen, and hence like drone bees 
need not, and have not pollen baskets. The young of these 
lazy .tramps, starve out the real insect babies of these homes, 
by eating their food, and in some cases, it is said, being una- 
ble like the young cuckoos to hurl these rightful children 
from the nest, they show an equal if not greater depravity by 
eating them, not waiting for starvation to get them out of the 
way. These parasites illustrate mimicry, already described, 
as they look so like the foster mothers of their own young, 
that unscientific eyes would often fail to distinguish them. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 35 

Probably the bumble-bees are no sharper, or they would re- 
fuse ingress to these merciless vagrants. 

The larvae (Fig. 12) of all insects of this family are maggot-like 
— wrinkled, footless, tapering at both ends, and, as before stated, 
feed upon pollen and honey. They are helpless, and thus, 
all during their babyhood — -the larvae state — the time when 
all insects are most ravenous, and the only time when many 
insects take food, the time when all growth in size, except 
such enlargement as is required by egg-development, occurs, 
these infant bees have to be fed by their mothers or elder 
sisters. They have a mouth with soft lips, and weak jaws, 
yet it is doubtful if all or much of their food is taken in at 
this opening. There is some reason to believe that they, like 
many maggots — such as the Hessian-fly larvae — absorb much 
of their food through the body walls. From the mouth leads 
the intestine, which has no anal opening. So there are no ex- 
creta other than gas and vapor. What commendation for 
their food, all capable of nourishment, and thus all as- 
similated. 

To this family belongs the genus of stingless bees, Melipo- 
na, of Mexico and South America, which store honey not 
only in the hexagonal brood-cells, but in great wax reservoirs. 
They, like the unkept hive-bee, build in hollow logs. They 
are exceedingly numerous in each, colony, and it has thus 
been thought that there were more than one queen. They 
are also very prodigal of wax, and thus may possess a pros- 
pective commercial importance in these days of artificial 
comb-foundation. In this genus the basal joint of the tarsus 
is triangular, and they have two submarginal cells, not three, 
to the front wings. They are also smaller than our common 
bees, and have wings that do not reach to the tip of their 
abdomens. 

Another genus of stingless bees, the genus Trigona, have 
the wings longer than the abdomens, and their jaws toothed. 
These, unlike the Melipona, are not confined to the New 
World, but are met in Africa, India and Australasia. These 
build their combs in tall trees, fastening them to the branches 
much as does the Apis dorsata, soon to be mentioned. 

Of course insects of the genus Bombus — our common 
bumble-bees — belong to this family. Here the tongue is very 



36 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

long, the bee large, the sting curved, with the barbs very 
short and few. Only the queen survives the winter. In 
spring she forms her nest under some sod or board, hollowing 
out a basin in the earth, and after storing a mass of bee- 
bread — probably a mixture of honey and pollen — she deposits 
several eggs in the mass. The larvse so soon as hatched out, eat 
out thimble-shaped spaces, which in time become even larger, 
and not unlike in form the queen-cells of our hive-bees. 
When the bees issue from these cells the same are strength- 
ened by wax. Later in the season these coarse wax cells be- 
come very numerous. Some may be made as cells and not tormed 
as above. The wax is dark, and doubtless contains much pol- 
len, as do the cappings and queen-cells of the honey-bees. 
At first the bees are all workers, later queens appear, and still 
later males. All, or nearly all, entomologists speak of two 
sizes of queen bumble-bees, the large and the small. The 
small appear early in the season, and the large late. A 
student of our College, Mr. N. P. Graham, who last year had 
a colony of bumble-bees in his room the whole season, thinks 
this an error. He believes that the individuals of the Bombus 
nest exactly correspond with those of the Apis. The queens, 
like those of bees, are smaller before mating and active 
laying. May not this be another case like that of the two 
kinds of worker-bees which deceived even Huber, an error 
consequent upon lack of careful and prolonged observation ? 

In Xylocopa or the carpenter-bees, which much resemble 
the bumble-bees, we have a fine example of a boring insect. 
With its strong mandibles or jaws it cuts long tunnels, often 
one or two feet long in the hardest wood. These burrows are 
divided by chip partitions into cells, and in each cell is left 
the bee-bread and an egg. 

The mason-bee — well named — constructs cells of earth and 
gravel, which by aid of its spittle it has power to cement, so- 
that they are harder than brick. 

The tailor or leaf-cutting bees, of the genus Megachile, 
make wonderful cells from variously shaped pieces of leaves. 
These are always mathematical in form, usually circular and 
oblong, and are cut — by the insect's making scissors of its 
jaws — from various leaves, the rose being a favorite. I have 
found these cells made almost wholly of the petals or flower 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 37 

leaves of the rose. The cells are made by gluing these leaf- 
sections in concentric layers, letting them over-lap. The ob- 
long sections form the walls of the cylinder, while the circular 
pieces are crowded as we press circular wads into our shot- 
guns, and are used at the ends or for partitions where several 
cells are placed together. When complete, the single cells 
are in form and size much like a revolver cartridge. When 
several are placed together, which is usually the case, they 
are arranged end to end, and in size and form are quite like a 
small stick of candy, though not more than one-third as long. 
These cells I have found in the grass, partially buried in the 
earth, in crevices, and in one case knew of their being built 
in the folds of a partially-knit sock, which a good house-wife 
had chanced to leave stationary for some days. These leaf- 
cutters have rows of hairs underneath, with which they carry- 
pollen. I have noticed them each summer for some years 
swarming on the Virginia creeper, often called woodbine, 
while in blossom, in quest of pollen, though I never saw a 
single hive-bee on these vines. The tailor-bees often cut the 
foliage of the same vines quite badly. 

I have often reared beautiful bees of the genus Osmia, 
which are also called mason-bees. Their glistening colors of 
blue and green possess a luster and reflection unsurpassed 
even by the metals themselves. These rear their young in 
cells of mud, in mud-cells lining hollow weeds and shrubs, 
and in burrows which they dig in the hprd earth. In early 
summer, during warm days, these glistening gems of life are 
frequently seen in walks and drives intent on gathering earth 
for mortar, or digging holes, and will hardly escape identifica- 
tion by the observing apiarist, as their form is so much like 
that of our honey-bees. They are smaller ; yet their broad 
head, prominent eyes, and general form, are very like those of 
the equally quick and active, yet more soberly attired, work- 
ers of the apiary. 

Other bees — the numerous species of the genus Nomada, 
and of Apathus, are the black sheep in the family Apidae. 
These tramps, already referred to, like the English cuckoo 
and our American cow-blackbird, steal in upon the unwary, 
and, though all unbidden, lay their eggs ; in this way appro- 
priating food and lodgings for their own yet unborn. Thus 



38 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



these insect vagabonds impose upon the unsuspecting foster- 
mothers in these violated homes. And these same foster- 
mothers show by their tender care of these merciless intru- 
ders, that they are miserably fooled, for they carefully guard 
and feed infant bees, which with age will in turn practice this 
same nefarious trickery. 

I reluctantly withhold further particulars of this wonderful 
bee family. When first I visited Messrs. Townley and Davis, 
of this State, I was struck with the fine collection of wild 
bees which each had made. Yet, unknowingly, they had in- 
corporated many that were not bees. Of course, many apiarists 
will wish to make such collections and also to study our wild 
bees. I hope the above will prove efficient aid. I hope, too, 
that it will stimulate others, especially youth, to the val- 
uable and intensely interesting study of these wonders of na- 
ture. I am glad, too, to open to the reader a page from the 
book of nature so replete with attractions as is the above. 
Nor do I think I have taken too much space in revealing the 
strange and marvelous instincts, and wonderfully varied hab- 
its, of this highest of insect families, at the head of which 
stand our own fellow-laborers and companions of the apiary. 

THE GENUS OP THE HONEY-BEE. 

The genus Apis includes all bees that have no tibial spurs 
on the posterior legs. They have three cubital or sub-costal 
cells (1, 2, 3, Fig. 3) — the second row from the costal or anterior 

Fig. 3. 




A.— Anterior Wing of a Bee. 1, 2, 3.-Sub-costal or Cubital Cells. 

B.— Secondary or Posterior Wing, a hooks to attach to Primary Wing. 

edge — on the front or primary wings. On the inner side of the 
posterior basal tarsus, opposite the pollen baskets, in the neu- 
ters or workers, are rows of hairs (Fig. 23) which are proba- 
bly used in collecting pollen. In the males, which do no 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 39' 

work except to fertilize the queens, the large compound eyes 
meet above, crowding the three simple eyes below (Fig. 4),. 

Fig. 4. 




Head of Drone, magnified. 

AntenncB. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes. 

while in the workers (Fig. 5) and queens these simple- 
eyes, called ocelli (Fig. 5), are above, and the compound 

Fig. 5. 




Head of Worker, magnified. 

Antennce. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes. 

eyes (Fig. 5) wide apart. The queens and drones have 
weak jaws, with a rudimentary tooth (Fig. 21, b), short 
tongues, and no pollen baskets, though they have the broad 
tibia and wide basal tarsus (Fig. 16, p). 

There is some doubt as to the number of species' of this 
genus, it is certain that the Apis Ligustica of Spinola, or 



40 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

Italian bee, the Apis fascial a of Latreille, or Egyptian bee, 
are only varieties of the Apis ruellifica, which also includes 
the German or black bee. 

Mr. F. Smith, an able entomologist, considers Apis dorsata 
of India and the East Indies, Apis zonata of the same islands, 
Apis Indica of India and China, and Apis florea of India, 
Ceylon, China and Borneo, as distinct species. He thinks, 
also, that Apis Adansoni and Apis nigrocincta are distinct, but 
thinks they may be varieties of Apis Indica. Some regard 
Apis unicolor as a distinct species, but it is probably a variety 
of Apis dorsata. As Apis mellifica has not been found in 
India, and is a native of Europe, Western Asia and Africa, it 
seems quite probable that several of the above may turn out 
to be only varieties of Apis mellifica. If there are only color 
and size to distinguish them, and, indeed, one may add habits, 
then we may suspect, with good reason, the validity of the 
above arrangement. If there is structural difference, as Mr. 
Wallace says there is, in the male dorsata, then we may call 
them different species. The Italian certainly has a longer 
tongue than the German, yet that is not sufficient to separate 
them as species. Apis zonata and Apis unicolor, both of the 
East Indies are said to be very black. Apis dorsata is large, 
suspends its combs to the branches of trees — in rare cases our 
own bees have been known to do the same — is said to be cross, 
to have a very long tongue, to be larger than our common bee, 
and to make larger cells. 

Apis florea is small, only half as large as Apis mellifica, of 
different form, while the posterior tarsus of the male is lobed. 

It would be very interesting, and perhaps profitable, to im- 
port these various species, and see how marked is the differ- 
ence between them and ours. Such work can be best accom- 
plished through our National Association. Very likely, as 
we come to know these far-off bees as we know the German 
and Italian, we shall find that their amiability, size, habits of 
comb-building, and lengthened organs, are only peculiarities 
developed by climate and surrounding conditions, and shall 
sweep them all into the one species, Apis mellifica, to be re- 
garded as we now regard the Italian and Egyptian, as only 
varieties. 

It seems strange that the genus Apis should not have been 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 41 

native to the American continent. Without doubt there were 
no bees of this genus here till introduced by the Caucasian 
race. It seems more strange, as we find that all the conti- 
nents and islands of the Eastern hemisphere abound with 
representatives. It is one more illustration of the strange, 
inextricable puzzles connected with geographical distribution 
of animals. 

SPECIES OE OUR HONEY-BEES. 

The bees at present domesticated unquestionably belong to 
the Apis mellifica. The character of this species will appear 
in the next chapter, as we proceed with their anatomy and 
physiology. As before stated, this species is nativ exclu- 
sively to the Eastern hemisphere, though it has been intro- 
duced wherever civilized man has taken up his abode. 

VARIETIES OE THE HONEY-BEE. 

GERMAN OB BLACK BEE. 

The German or black bee is the variety best known, as 
through all the ages it has been most widely distributed. 
The name German refers to locality, while the name black is 
a misnomer, as the bee is a gray-black. The queen, and in a 
less degree the drones, are darker, while the legs and under 
surface of the former are brown, or copper color, and of the 
latter light-gray. The tongue of the black worker I have 
found, by repeated dissections and comparisons made both by 
myself and by my pupils, is shorter than that of the Italian 
worker, and generally less hairy. The black bees have been 
known no longer than the Italians, as we find the latter were 
known both to Aristotle, the fourth century B. C, and to Virgil, 
the great Roman poet, who sung of the variegated golden bee, 
the first century B. C. ; and we can only account for the wider 
distribution of the German bee by considering the more vig- 
orous pushing habits of the Germanic races, who not only 
over-ran and infused life into Southern Europe, but have 
vitalized all Christendom. 

LIGUBIAN OB ITALIAN BEE. 

The Italian bee (see frontis-piece) is characterized as a 
variety, not only by difference of color, habits, and activity, but 
also by possessing a little longer tongue. These bees were 
first described as distinct from the G-erman 'race by Spinola, in 



42 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

1805, who gave the name Ligurian bee, which name prevails 
in Europe. The name comes from a province of Northern 
Italy, north of the Ligurian Gulf, or Gulf of Genoa. This 
region is shut off from Northern Europe by the Alps, and 
thus these bees were kept apart from the German bees, and 
in warmer, more genial Italy, was developed a distinct race, 
our beautiful Italians. 

In 1843., Von Baldenstein procured a colony of these bees, 
which he had previously observed as peculiar, while stationed 
as a military captain in Italy. He published his experience 
in 1848, which was read by Dzierzon, who became inter- 
ested, and through him the Italian became generally intro- 
duced into Germany. In 1859, six years after Dzierzon's first 
importation, the Italian variety was introduced into England 
by Neighbour, the author of the valuable treatise already re- 
ferred to. The same year, Messrs Wagner and Colvin imported 
the Italians from Dzierzon's apiary into America ; and in 
1860, Mr. S. P. Parsons brought the first colonies that were 
imported direct from Italy. 

The Italian worker (see frontis-piece) is quickly distin- 
guished by the bright-yellow rings at the base of the abdo- 
men. If the colony is pure, every bee will show three of 
these golden girdles. The two first segments or rings of the 
abdomen, except at their posterior border, and also the base 
or anterior border of the third, will be of this orange-yellow 
hue. The rest of the back or dorsal surface will be much as 
in the German race, Underneath, the abdomen, except for a 
greater or less distance at the tip, will also be yellow, while 
the same color appears more or less strongly marked on the 
legs. The workers, too, have longer ligulse or tongues (Fig. 
20) than do the German race, and their tongues are also a 
little more hairy. They are also more active, and less inclined 
to sting. The queen has the entire base of her abdomen, 
and sometimes nearly the whole of it, orange yellow. The 
variation as to amount of color in the queens, is quite striking. 
Sometimes very dark queens are imported right from the 
Ligurian hills, yet all the workers will wear the badge of 
purity — the three golden bands. 

The drones, too, are quite variable. Sometimes the rings 
and patches of yellow will be very prominent, then, again, 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY 43 

quite indistinct. But the under side of the body is always, 
so far as I have observed, mainly yellow. 

THE PA SCI ATA OR EGYPTIAN RACE. 

The word fasciata means banded, as the Egyptian bee is 
very broadly banded with yellow. I have never seen these 
bees, but from descriptions by Latrielle, Kirby, and Bevan, I 
understand that all the bees are rather smaller, more slim, 
and much more yellow than the Italians. Herr Vogel states 
that they gather no propolis, but that each colony contains a 
number of small drone-laying queens. These bees were 
probably the ones which, with the kine of the ancient goodly 
land of promise, gave the rich pabulum, that gave the repu- 
tation : " flowing with milk and honey." They are thus the 
oldest of domesticated bees. These, too, are said to have 
been moved in rude boats or rafts up and down the Nile, as 
the flower pasturage seemed to require. The bees are said 
to be very active, to be proof against the cold, and have also 
been reputed very cross. 

OTHER VARIETIES. 

There are several other doubtful varieties which are receiv- 
ing some attention from the German apiarists, and are honored 
with attention at the great meetings of Austria and Germany, 
as we learn from the bee publications of those countries. The 
Cyprian bee, from the Isle of Cyprus, as its name indicates, 
is yellow, and probably an offspring from the Italian or Egypr 
tian. It doubtless has substantial merits, and very likely is 
superior to the Italian, than which it is more beautiful, 
though possibly less amiable. Other varieties, which are not 
probably distinct races, or at least may not be, are the Heath, 
the Carniolan or Krainer, and the Herzegovinian. They are 
not considered superior to the German and Italian. 

A variety of our Italian, which has rows of white hairs 
unusually distinct, is being sold in the United States under 
the name of Albinos. That they are a distinct race is not at 
all likely. In fact, I have noticed among our Italian stocks 
every year, the so-called Albinos. 



44 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one, 
to give in this connection a complete history of entomology 
so far as it relates to Apis mellifica. Yet, this would take 
much space, and as there is quite a full history in books that 
I shall recommend to those who are eager to know more of 
this interesting department of natural history, I will not go 
into details. 

Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B. 
C. About three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth 
Greorgic, gave to the world the views then extant on this sub- 
ject, gathered largely from the writings of Aristotle. The 
poetry will ever be remarkable for its beauty and elegance — 
would that as much could be said for the subject matter, 
which, though full of interest, is also full of errors. A little 
later Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his 
observations, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though 
.much that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious. 
Pliny, the Elder, who wrote in the first century A. D., helped 
to continue the erroneous opinions which previous authors had 
given, and not content with this, he added opinions of his 
own, which were not only without foundation, but were often 
the perfection of absurdity. 

After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no pro- 
gress in natural history; even for two centuries after the revival 
of learning, we find nothing worthy of note. Swammerdam, 
a Dutch entomologist, in the middle of the 17th century, 
wrote a general history of insects, also, " The Natural History 
of Bees." He and his English cotemporary, Bay, showed 
their ability as naturalists by founding their systems on the 
insect transformations. They also revived the study and 
practice of anatomy, which had slept since its first introduc- 
tion by Aristotle, as the great stepping-stone in zoological 
progress. Bay also gave special attention to Hymenoptera, 
and was much aided by Willoughby and Lister. At this time 
Harvey, so justly noted for his discovery of the circulation of 
the blood, announced his celebrated dictum, "Omnia ex ovo," 
— all life from eggs— which was completely established by 
the noted Italians, Bedi and Malpighi. Toward the middle 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 45 

of the 18th century, the great Linnaeus — "the brilliant Star 
of the North" — published his " System Naturae," and threw a 
flood of light on the whole subject of natural history. His 
division of insects was founded upon presence, or absence, 
and characteristics, of wings. This, like Swammerdam's basis, 
was too narrow, yet his conclusions were remarkably 
correct. Linnaeus is noted for his accurate descriptions, and 
especially for his gift of the binomial method of naming 
plants and animals, giving in the name the genus and species, 
as, Apis mellifica. He was also the first to introduce classes 
and orders, as we now understand them. When we consider 
the amount and character of the work of the great Swede, 
we can but place him among the first, if not as the first, of 
naturalists. Cotemporary with Linnaeus (also written Linne) 
was Geoffroy, who did valuable work in defining new genera. 
In the last half of the century appeared the great work of a 
master in entomology, DeGeer, who based his arrangement of 
insects on the character of wings and jaws, and thus discovered 
another of nature's keys to aid him in unlocking her myster- 
ies. Kirby well says : " He united in himself the highest 
merit of almost every department of entomology." As a 
scientist, an anatomist, a physiologist, and as the observant his- 
torian of the habits and economy of insects, he is above all 
praise. What a spring of self-improvement, enjoyment and 
of public usefulness, is such an ability to observe, as was pos- 
sessed by the great DeGeer. 

Contemporary with Linnaeus and DeGeer was Reaumur, of 
France, whose experiments and researches are of special in- 
terest to apiarists. Perhaps no entomologist has done more 
to reveal the natural history of bees. Especially to be com- 
mended are his method of experimenting, his patience in in- 
vestigation, the elegance and felicity of his word pictures, 
and, above all, his devotion to truth. We shall have occasion 
to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable worker in the 
great shop of insect-life frequently in the following pages. 
Bonnet, of Geneva, the able correspondent of Reaumur, also 
did valuable work, in which the lover of bees has a special 
interest. Bonnet is specially noted for his discovery and 
elucidation of parthenogenesis — that anomalous mode of re- 
production — as it occurs among the Aphides or plant-lice, 



46 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

though he did not discover that our bees, in the production 
of drones, illustrate the same doctrine. Though the author 
of no system, he gave much aid to Reaumur in his systematic 
labors. 

At this same period systematic entomology received great 
aid from Lyonnet's valuable work. This author dissected 
and explained the development of a caterpillar. His descrip- 
tions and illustrations are wonderful, and will proclaim his 
ability as long as entomology is studied, and they, to quote 
Bonnet, " demonstrate the existence of Grod." 

We have next to speak of the great Dane, Fabricius — a 
student of Linnaeus — who published his works from 1775 to 
1798, and thus was revolutionizing systematic entomology at. 
the same time that we of America were revolutionizing gov- 
ernment. He made the mouth organs the basis of his classi- 
fication, and thus followed in the path which DeG-eer had 
marked out, though it was scarcely beaten by the latter ;, 
while Fabricious left it wide and deep. His classes and or- 
ders are no improvement on, in fact, are not nearly as correct, 
as were his old master's. In his description of genera — where 
he pretended to follow nature — he has rendered valuable 
service. In leading scientists to study parts, before little re- 
garded, and thus to better establish affinities, he did a most 
valuable work. His work is a standard, and should be thor- 
oughly studied by all entomologists. 

Just at the close of the last century, appeared the great- 
est " Roman of them all," the great Latreille, of France, 
whose name we have so frequently used in the classification 
of the honey-bee. His is called the Elective System, as he 
used wings, mouth-parts, transformations, in fact, all the or- 
gans — the entire structure. He gave us our Family Apidae, 
our genus Apis, and, as will be remembered, he described 
several of the species of this genus. In our study of this 
great man's work, we constantly marvel at his extensive 
researches and remarkable talents. Lamark, of this, time, ex- 
cept that he could see no God in nature, did very admirable 
work. So, too, did Cuvier, of Napoleon's time, and the learned 
Dr. Leach, of England. Since then we have had hosts of 
workers in this field, and many worthy of not only mention 
but praise ; yet the work has been to rub up and garnish, 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 47 

Tather than to create. So I will close this brief history with 
a notice of authors who are very serviceable to such as may 
desire to glean farther of the treasures of systematic ento- 
mology ; only remarking that at the end of the next chapter 
I shall refer to those who have been particularly serviceable 
in developing the anatomy and physiology of insects, especially 
of bees. 

VALUABLE BOOKS FOR THE STUDENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. 

For mere classification^ no work is equal to Westwood on 
Insects — two volumes. In this the descriptions and illustra- 
tions are very full and perfect, making it easy to study the 
families, and even genera, of all the sub-orders. This work 
and the following are out of print, but can be got with little 
trouble at second-hand book-stores. 

Kirby and Spence — Introduction to Entomology — is a very 
complete wOrk. It treats of the classification, structure, 
habits, general economy of insects, and gives a history of the 
subject. It is an invaluable work, and a great acquisition to 
any library. 

Dr. Packard's Guide to the Study of insects is a valuable 
• work, and being American, is specially to be recommended. 

The Reports of Dr. T. Harris, Dr. A. Fitch, and of Prof. 
C. V. Riley, will also be found of great value and interest. 



48 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



CHAPTER II. 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 

In this chapter I shall give first the general anatomy of 
insects ; then the anatomy, and still more wonderful physiology 
of the honey-bee. 

ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 

In all insects the body is divided into three well-marked 
portions (Fig. 2) : the head (Figs. 4 and 5), which contains 
the mouth-organs, the eyes, both the compound and when 
present the simple, and the antennae ; the thorax, which is 
composed of three rings, and gives support to the one or two 
pairs of wings, and to the three pairs of legs ; and the abdo- 
men, which is composed of a variable number of rings, and 
gives support to the external sex-organs, and when present to 
the sting. Within the thorax there are little more than 
muscles, as the concentrated strength of insects, which ena- 
bles them to fly with such rapidity, dwells in this confined 
space. Within the abdomen, on the other hand, are the sex- 
organs, by far the greater and more important portions of the 
alimentary canal, and other important organs. 

ORGANS OF THE HEAD. 

Of these the mouth organs (Fig. 6) are most prominent. 
These consist of an upper lip — labrum — and under lip — labium 
— and two pairs of jaws which move sidewise ; the stronger, 
horny jaws, called mandibles, and the more membranous, but 
usually longer, maxillae. The labrum (Fig. 6, T) is well de- 
scribed in the name npper lip. It is attached, usually, by a 
movable joint to a similarly shaped piece above it, called cly- 
peus (Fig. 6, c), and this latter to the broad epicranium (Fig. 
6, o), which contains the antennae, the compound, and, when 
present, the simple eyes. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



49 



The labium (Fig. 15) is not described by the name under 
lip, as its base forms the floor of the mouth, and its tip the 
tongue. The base is usually broad, and is called the men- 
turn, and from this extends the tongue (Fig. 15, a) or ligula. 

Fig. 6. 




* %*4~ir « 





Head of Bee much magnified. 



o— Epicranium. 
e e— Compound eyes. 
o a— Antennae. 
c— Glypeus. 
I— Labrum. 



m — Jaws. 
m x—2d Jaws, 
fc fc— Labial palpi, 
t— Liigula. 



On either side, near the junction of the ligula and mentum, 
arises a jointed organ rarely absent, called the labial palpus 
(Fig. 6, kk), or, together, the labial palpi. Just within the 
angle formed by these latter and the ligula arise the para- 
glossae (Fig. 15, d), one on either side. These are often 
wanting. 



50 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 6, m, m) arise one on either 
side just below and at the side of the labrum, or upper lip. 
These work sidewise instead of up and down as in higher an- 
imals, are frequently very hard and sharp, and sometimes 
armed with one or more teeth. A rudimentary tooth (Fig. 
21, b) is visible on the jaws of drone and queen bees. 

Beneath the jaws or mandibles, and inserted a little far- 
ther back, are the second jaws or maxillse (Fig. 6, mx), less 
dense and firm than the mandibles, but far more complex. 
They arise by a small joint, the cardo, next this is a larger 
joint, the stipes, from this extends on tbe inside the broad 
lacinia (Fig. 20. c) or blade, usually fringed with hairs on its 
inner edge, towards the mouth ; while on the outside of the 
stipes are inserted the — from one to several jointed — maxil- 
lary palpi. In bees these are very small, and consist of two 
joints, and in some insects are wholly wanting. Sometimes, 
as in some of the beetles, there is a third member running 
from the stipes between the palpus and lacinia called the 
galea. The maxillae also move sidewise, and probably aid in 
holding and turning the food while it is crushed by the harder 
jaws, though in some cases they,»too, aid in triturating the 
food. 

These mouth parts are very variable in form in different in- 
sects. In butterflies and moths, two-wing flies and bugs, they 
are transformed into a tube, which in the last two groups 
forms a hard, strong' beak or piercer, well exemplified in the 
mosquito and bed-bug. In all the other insects we find them 
much as in the bees, with the separate parts varying greatly 
in form, to agree with the habits and character of their pos- 
sessors. No wonder DeGreer and Fabricius detected these 
varying forms as strongly indicative of the nature of the in- 
sect, and no wonder, too, that in their use they were so suc- 
cessful in forming a natural classification. 

Every apiarist will receive great benefit by dissecting these 
parts and studying their form and relations for himself. By 
getting his children interested in the same, he will have con- 
ferred upon them one of the rarest of blessings. 

To dissect these parts, first remove the head and carefully 
pin it to a cork, passing the pin through, well back between 
the eyes. Now separate the parts by two needle points, made 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 51 

by inserting a needle for half its length into a pine stick the 
shape of a pipe-stem, leaving the point projecting for an inch 
or more. With one of these in each hand commence opera- 
tions. The head may be either side up. Much may be 
learned in dissecting large insects, even, with no glass ; but 
in all cases, and especially in small insects, a good lens will 
be of great value. The best lens is one of Tolles', sold by 
Mr. Stoddard, of the Boston optical works. These are very 
excellent and thus high priced, costing $14.00. Gray's trip- 
let hand-lenses are very good, are cheap, and can be procured 
for about $2.00 of any optician. The handle should have a 
hole through it to permit of mounting it above the object, so 
that it will hold itself. Tolles' lenses are easily mounted, in 
a stand which any one can contrive and make in twenty min- 
utes. I value my Tolles' lens even more highly than my 
large compound microscope, which cost $150. Were I 
obliged to part with either, the latter would go. 

I require my students to do a great deal of dissecting, 
which they enjoy very much and find very valuable. I would 
much rather that my boy would become interested in such 
study, than to have him possessor of infinite gold rings, or 
even a huge gold watch, with a tremendous charm. Let such 
pleasing recreation gain the attention of our boys, and they 
will ever contribute to our delight, and not sadden us with 
anxiety and fear. 

The antennae (Fig. 6, a. a) are the horn-like jointed organs 
situated between or below and in front of the large compound 
eyes of all insects. They are sometimes short, as in the 
house-fly, and sometimes very long, as in the grasshoppers. 
They are either straight, curved or elbowed (Fig. 6). In 
form, too, they are very various, as thread-like, tapering, 
toothed, knobbed, fringed, feathered, etc. It is known that a 
nerve passes into the antenna?, but their exact function is little 
understood. That they serve as most delicate touch organs 
no apiarist can doubt. That they serve as organs of smell 
or hearing is not proved. That insects are conscious of sounds 
I think no observing person can doubt. It is proved by the 
call of the katy-did, the cicada and the cricket. What apia- 
rist, too, has not noticed the effect of various sounds made 
by the bees upon their comrades of the hive. How contagious 



52 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

the sharp note of anger, the low hum of fear, and the pleas- 
ant tone of a new swarm as they commence to enter their new 
home. Now, whether insects take note of these vibrations, 
as we recognize pitch, or whether they just distinguish the 
tremor, I think no one knows. There is some reason to be- 
lieve that their delicate touch-organs may enable them to dis- 
criminate between vibrations, even more acutely, than can we 
by use of our ears. A slight jar will quickly awaken a colo- 
ny of hybrids, while a loud noise will pass unnoticed. If in- 
sects can appreciate with great delicacy the different vibratory 
conditions of the air by an excessive development of the 
sense of touch, then undoubtedly the antennas may be great 
aids. Dr. Clemens thought that insects could only detect at- 
mospheric vibrations. So, too, thought Linnaeus and Bonnet. 
Siebold thinks, as the antennas receive but one nerve, and are 
plainly touch-organs, they cannot be organs of hearing. Kirby 
has noticed that some moths turn their antennae towards the 
direction from which noise proceeds, and thus argues that an- 
tennae are organs of hearing. Grote, for a similar reason, 
thinks that the densely feathered antennae of the males of 
various night moths, serve both for smell and hearing. Prof. 
A. M. Mayer and Mr. C. Johnson (see American Naturalist, 
vol. 8, p. 574) have by various ingenious experiments, proved 
conclusively, that the delicate, beautifully feathered antennae 
of the male mosquito are organs of hearing. 

That insects have a very refined sense of smell is beyond 
question. How quickly the carrion-fly finds the carcass, the 
scavenger the filth, and the bee the precious nectar. 

I have reared female moths in my study, and have been 
greatly surprised on the day of their leaving their cocoons, to 
find my room swarming with males. These bridegrooms en- 
tered an open window in the second-story of a brick building. 
How delicate must have been the sense by which they were 
led to make the visit, and thus made to grace my cabinet. 
Bees, too, have been known to dash against a ' shutter behind 
which were flowers, thus showing the superiority of their per- 
ception of odors, as also their poor vision. But odors are 
carried by the air, and must reach the insect through this me- 
dium. Is it not probable, that the various breathing mouths 
of insects are also so many noseS) and that their delicate 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 53 

lining membranes abounding with nerve filaments, are the 
great odor sentinels ? This view was maintained by both 
Lehman and Cuvier, and explains this delicate perception of 
scents, as the breathing mouths are large and numerous, and 
most so in insects like bees and moths, which are most sensi- 
tive to odors. How quickly the bees notice the scent of a 
strange bee or queen, or the peculiar odor of the venom. I 
have known a bee to sting a glove, and in a trice the glove 
would be as a pin-cushion, with stings in lieu of pins. Some- 
times the bees will dart for many feet, guided by this odor. 
Yet the odor is very pungent, as I have frequently smelt the 
poison before I felt the sting. I have tried the experi- 
ments of Huber and Lubbock, and know that such insects as 
bees and ants will take no note of food after the loss of their 
antennae. But we must remember that this is a capital ope- 
ration. With loss of antennae, insects lose control of their 
motions, and in many ways show great disturbance. Is it not 
probable then that removing the antennas, destroys the desire 
for food, as does amputation with ourselves ? Kirby believes 
with Huber, that there is a scent organ. Huber' s experi- 
ments on which he based this opinion are, as usual, very in- 
teresting. He presented a coarse hair dipped in oil of tur- 
pentine — a substance very repugnant to bees — to various parts 
of a bee engrossed in sipping honey. The bee made no ob- 
jection, even though it touched the ligula, until it approached 
the mouth above the mentum, when she became much dis- 
turbed. He also filled a bee's mouth with paste, which soon har- 
dened, after which the bee paid no heed to honey placed near 
it. This was not so conclusive, as the bee may have been so 
disturbed as to lose its appetite. I have experimented a good 
deal, and am inclined to the following opinion : The antennae 
are very delicate touch-organs or feelers, and are so important 
in their, function and connection that removal produces a se- 
vere shock, but further we know but little about their func- 
tion, if they have other, and from the very nature of the prob- 
lem we will find it very difficult of solution. 

The eyes are of two kinds, the compound, which are al- 
ways present in mature insects, and the ocelli or simple eyes, 
which may or may not be present. When present there are 
usually three, which if we join by lines, we will describe a 



54 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

triangle, in the vertices of whose angles are the ocelli. 
Rarely there are but two ocelli, and very rarely but one. 

The simple eyes (Fig. ^,fff) are circular, and possess a 
cornea, lens and retina, which receives the nerve of sight. 

From the experiments of Reaumur and Swammerdam, 
which consisted in covering the eyes with varnish, they con- 
cluded that vision with these simple eyes is very indistinct, 
though by them the insect can distinguish light. Some have 
thought that these simple eyes were for vision at slight dis- 
tances. Larvae, like spiders and myriapods, have only sim- 
ple eyes. 

The compound eyes (Fig. 2, e) are simply a cluster of sim- 
ple eyes, are situated one on either side of the head, and vary 
much in form and size. Between or below these are inserted 
the antennae. Sometimes these last are inserted in a notch 
of the eyes, and in a few cases actually divide each eye into 
two eyes. 

The eyes may meet above as in drones (Fig. 4), most two- 
wing flies and dragon-flies, or they may be considerably sepa- 
rated, as in the worker-bees (Fig. 5). The separate facets or 
simple eyes, of each compound eye, are hexagonal, or six- 
sided, and in the microscope look not unlike a section of 
honey-comb. The number of these is prodigious — Leeuwenhoek 
actually counted 12,000 in the eye of a dragon-fly — while 
some butterflies have over 17,000. The compound eyes are 
motionless, but from their size and sub-spherical shape, they 
give quite a range of vision. It is not likely that they are 
capable of adjustment to accord with different distances, and 
it has been supposed, from the direct darting flight of bees to 
their hives, and the awkward work they make in finding a 
hive when moved only for a short distance, that their eyes are 
best suited to long vision. 

Sir John Lubbock has proved, by some interesting experiments 
with strips of colored paper, that bees can distinguish colors. 
Honey was placed on a blue strip, beside several others of 
various colors. In the absence of the bees he changed the 
position of this strip, and upon their return the bees went to 
the blue strip rather than to the old position. Our practical 
apiarists have long been aware of this fact, and have con- 
formed their practice to the knowledge, in giving a variety of 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 55- 

colors to their hives. Apiarists have frequently noted that 
bees have a rare faculty of marking positions, but, for slight 
distances, their sense of color will correct mistakes which 
would occur if position alone was guide. 

APPENDAGES OF THE THORAX. 

The organs of flight are the most noticeable appendages of 
the thorax. The wings are usually four, though the Diptera 
have but two, and some insects — as the worker ants — have 
none. The front or primary wings (Fig. 3, A) are usually 
larger than the secondary or hind wings (Fig. 3, _S), and thus 
the mesathoracic or middle ring of the thorax, to which they 
are attached, is usually larger than the mettathorax or third 
ring. The wings consist of a broad frame-work of veins 
(Fig. 3), covered by a thin, tough membrane. The main ribs 
or veins are variable in number, while towards the extremity 
of the wing are more or less cross-veins, dividing this portion 
of the wings into more or less cells. In the higher groups 
these cells are few, and quite important in classifying. Es- 
pecially useful are the cells in the second row, from the frontal 
or costal edge of the front wings, called the sub-costal cells. 
Thus in the genus Apis there are three such cells (Fig. 3, M, 
1, 2, 3), while in the Melipona there are only two. The ribs 

Fig. 7. 




TJiorax of Bee magnified three times. 

a, a, a— Muscles. 6, 6— Crust. 

or veins consist of a tube within a tube. The inner one 
forming an air tube, the outer one carrying blood. On the 
costal edge of the secondary wings we often find hooks, to 
attach it to the front wings (Fig. 3, B, a). 

The wings are moved by powerful muscles, compactly loca- 
ted in the thorax (Fig. 7, a, a, a), whose strength, as well as the 
rapidity of the vibrations of the wings when flight is rapid, 



56 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

are really beyond computation. Think of a liny fly outstrip- 
ping the fleetest horse in the chase, and then marvel at this 
wondrous mechanism. 

The legs (Fig. 2, g, g, g) are six in number in all mature in- 
sects, two on the lower side of each ring of the thorax. 
These are long or short, weak or strong, according to the habit 
of the insect. Each leg consists of the following joints or 
parts : The coxae (Fig. 24), which move like a ball and socket 
joint in the close-fitting coxal cavities of the body-rings. 
Next to these follow in order the broad tracanter, the large, 
broad femur (Fig. 2, g', 1), the long, slim tibia (Fig. 2, g', 2), 
frequently bearing strong spines at or near its end, called 
tibial spurs, and followed by the from one to five-jointed 
tarsi (Fig. 2, g' : 3, 3, 3, 3, 3). All these parts move freely 
upon each other, and will vary in form to agree with their 
use. At the end of the last tarsal joint are two hooked 
claws (Fig. 2, g', 4), between which are the pulvilli, which 
are not air-pumps as usually described, but rather glands, 
which secrete a sticky substance which . enables insects to 
stick to a smooth wall, even though it be above them. The 
legs, in fact the whole crust, is more or less dense and hard, 
owing to the deposit within the structure of a hard substance 
known as chitine. 

INTERNAL ANATOMY OP INSECTS. 

The muscles of insects are usually whitish. ' Sometimes I 
have noticed quite a pinkish hue about the muscles of the 
thorax. They vary in form and position to accord with their 
use. The mechanism of contraction is the same as in higher 
animals. The ultimate fibers of the voluntary muscles, when 
highly magnified, show the strife or cross-lines the same as 
do the voluntary muscles of vertebrates, and are very beauti- 
ful as microscopic objects. The separate muscles are not 
bound together by a membrane as in higher animals. In in- 
sects the muscles are widely distributed, though, as we should 
expect, they are concentrated in the thorax and head. In in- 
sects of swiftest flight, like the bee, the thorax (Fig. 7, a, a, a) 
is almost entirely composed of muscles ; the (esophagus, 
which carries the food to the stomach, being very small. At 
the base of the jaws, too, the muscles are. large and firm. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 57 

The number of muscles is astounding. Lyonnet counted 
over 3,000 in a single caterpillar, nearly eight times as many 
as are found in the human body. The strength, too, of in- 
sects is prodigious. There must be quality in muscles, for 
muscles as large as those of the elephant, and as strong as 
those of the flea, would not need the fulcrum which the old 
philosopher demanded, in order to move the world. Fleas 
have been made to draw miniature cannon, chains, and even 
wagons many hundred times heavier than themselves. 

The nerves of insects are in no wise peculiar so far as known, 
except in position. As in our bodies, some are knotted or 
have ganglia, and some are not. 

The main nervous cord runs along the under or ventral 
side of the body (Fig. 8), separates near the head, and after 
passing around the oesophagus, enlarges to form the largest of 
the ganglia, which serves as a brain. The minute nerves ex- 
tend everywhere, and in squeezing out the viscera of an in- 
sect are easily visible. 

The organs of circulation in insects are quite insignificant. 
The heart is a long tube situated along the back, and 
receives the blood at valvular openings along its sides which 
only permit the fluid to pass in, when by contraction it is 
forced towards the head and emptied into the general cavity. 
Thus the heart only serves to keep the blood in motion. Ac- 
cording to the best authorities, there are no special vessels to 
carry the blood to various organs. Nor are they necessary, 
as this nutritive fluid everywhere bathes the alimentary canal, 
and thus easily receives nutriment, or gives waste by osmosis, 
everywhere surrounds the tracheae or air-tubes — the insect's 
lungs — and thus receives that most needful of all food, oxy- 
gen, and gives the baneful carbonic acid, everywhere touches 
the various organs, and gives and takes as the vital opera- 
tions of the animal require. 

The blood is light colored, and almost destitute of discs or 
corpuscles, which are so numerous in the blood of higher ani- 
mals, and which give our blood its red color. The function 
of these discs is to carry oxygen, and as oxygen is carried 
everywhere through the body by the ubiquitous air-tubes of 
insects, we see the discs are* not needed. Except these semi- 
fluid discs, which are real organs, and nourished as are other 



58 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

organs, the blood of higher animals is entirely fluid, in all 
normal conditions, and contains not the organs themselves or 
any part of them, but only the elements, which are absorbed 

Fig. 8. 




Nervous System of the Drone magnified four times. 

by the tissue and converted into the organs, or, to be scien- 
tific, are assimilated. As the blood of insects is nearly des- 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 59 

titute of these discs, it is almost wholly fluid, and is almost 
wholly made up of nutritious substance. 

The respiratory or breathing system of insects has already 
been referred to. Along the sides of the body are the spira- 
cles or breathing mouths, which vary in number. These are 
armed with a complex valvular arrangement which excludes 
dust or other noxious particles. These spiracles are lined 
with a delicate membrane which abounds with nerves, which 
were referred to in speaking of them as smelling organs. 
From these extend the labyrinth of air-tubes (Fig. 2, f,f), 
which breathe vitalizing oxygen into every part of the insect 
organism. In the more active insects — as in bees — the main 
tracheae, one on each side of the abdomen, are expanded into 
large air-sacks (Fig. 2, f). Insects often show a respiratory 
motion, which in bees is often very marked. Newport has 
shown that in bees the rapidity of the respiration gauges the 
heat in the hive, and thus we see why bees, in times of severe 
cold, which they essay to keep at bay by forced respiration, 
consume much food, exhale much foul air and moisture, and 
are liable to disease. Newport found that in cases of severe 
cold there would be quite a rise of mercury in a thermometer 
which he suspended in the hive amidst the cluster. In the 
larva state, many insects breathe by fringe-like gills. The 
larval mosquito has gills in form of hairy tufts, while in the 
larval dragon-fly the gills are inside the rectum, or last part 
of the intestine. This insect, by a muscular effort, draws the 
water slowly in at the anus, when it bathes these singularly- 
placed branchiae, and then makes it serve a further turn by 
forcibly expelling it, when the insect is sent darting ahead. 
Thus this curious apparatus not only furnishes oxygen, but 
also a mode of motion. In the pupae of insects there is little 
or no motion, yet important organic changes are taking place — 
the worm-like, ignoble, creeping, often repulsive larva, is soon 
to appear as the airy, beautiful, active, almost ethereal imago. 
So oxygen, the most essential — the sine qua non — of 
all animal food, is still needed. The bees are too wise 
to seal the brood-cell with impervious wax, but rather 
add the porous capping, made of wax and pollen. The 
pupae no less than the larvae of some two-wing flies, which 
live in water, have long tubes which reach far out for the 



60 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



vivifying air, and are thus called rat-tailed. Even the pupae 
of the mosquito, awaiting in its liquid home the glad time 
when it shall unfold its tiny wings and pipe its war-note, 
has a similar arrangement to secure the gaseous pabulum. 

The digestive apparatus of insects is very interesting, and, 
as in our own class of animals, varies very much in length and 
complexity, as the hosts of insects vary in their habits. As 
in mammals and birds, the length, with some striking excep- 
tions, varies with the food. Carnivorous or flesh-eating in- 
sects have a short alimentary canal, while in those that feed 
on vegetable food it is much longer. 

Fig. 9. 




Alimentary Canal. 



o— Honey stomach. 
c— Urinary tubes. 



b— True stomach, 
d— Intestine. 



The mouth I have already described. Following this is the 
throat or pharynx, then the oesophagus or gullet, which may 
expand, as in the bee, to form a honey or sucking stomach 
(Fig. 9, o), may have an attached crop like the chicken, or 
may run as a uniform tube as in our bodies, to the true stom- 
ach (Fig. 9, b). Following this is the intestine — separated 
by some into an ileum and a rectum — which ends in a vent 
or anus. In the mouth are salivary glands, which in larvae 
that form cocoons are the source of silk. In the glands this 
is a viscid fluid, but as it leaves the duct it changes instantly 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 61 

into the gossamer thread. Bees and wasps use this saliva in 
building their structures. With it and mud some wasps 
make mortar ; with it and wood, others their paper cells ; 
with it and wax, the bee fashions the ribbons that are to form 
the beautiful comb. 

Lining the entire alimentary canal are mucous glands which 
secrete a viscid fluid that keeps the tube soft, and promotes 
the passage of food. 

The true stomach (Fig. 9, b) is very muscular, and often a 
gizzard, as in the crickets, where its interior is lined with 
teeth. The interior of the stomach is glandular, for secreting 
the gastric juice which is to liquify the food, that it may be 
absorbed, or pass through the walls of the canal into the 
blood. Attached to the lower portion of the stomach are 
numerous urinary tubes (Fig. 9, c) though Cuvier, and even 
Kirby, call these bile tubes. Siebold thinks some of the 
mucous glands secrete bile, and others act as a pancreas. 

The intestine when short, as in larvas and most carnivora, 
is straight and but little if any longer than the abdomen, 
while in most plant eaters it is long and thus zig-zag in its 
course. Strange as it may seem, the fecal pellets of some 
insects are beautiful in form, and of others pleasant to the 
taste. In some caterpillars they are barrel-shaped, artistically 
fluted, of brilliant hue, and if fossilized, would be greatly 
admired, as have been the coprolites — fossil feces of quadru- 
peds — if set as gems in jewelry. As it is, they would form 
no mean parlor ornament. In other insects, as the Aphides 
or plant-lice, the excrement, as well as the fluid that escapes 
in some species from special tubes called the nectaries, is very 
sweet, and in absence of floral nectar, will often be appropri- 
ated by bees and conveyed to the hives. Imagination would 
make this a bitter draught, so here, as elsewhere in life, the 
bitter and sweet are mingled. In those insects that suck 
their food, as bees, butterflies, moths, two-wing flies and bugs, 
the feces are watery or liquid, while in case of solid food the 
excrement is solid. 

SECRETORY ORGANS OP INSECTS. 

I have already spoken of the salivary glands, which Kirby 
gives as distinct from the true silk-secreting tubes, though 



62 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

Newport gives them as one and the same. In many insects 
these seem absent. I have also spoken of the mucous glands, 
the urinary tubules, etc. Besides these, there are other secre- 
tions which serve for purposes of defense : In the queen and 
workers of bees, and in ants and wasps, the poison intruded 
with the sting is an example. This is secreted by glands at 
the posterior of the abdomen, stored in sacks (Fig. 25, c), and 
extruded through the sting, as occasion requires. I know of 
no insects that poison while they bite, except it be mosquitoes, 
gnats, etc., and in these cases no special secreting organ has 
been discovered. Perhaps the beak itself secretes an irrita- 
ting substance. A few exceedingly beautiful caterpillars are 
covered with branching spines, which sting about like a nettle. 
We have two such species. They are green, and of rare 
attraction, so that to capture them is worth the slight incon- 
venience arising from their irritating punctures. Some 
insects, like bugs, secrete a disgusting fluid or gas which 
affords protection, as by its stench it renders these filthy bugs 
so offensive that even a hungry bird or half-famished insect 
passes them by on the other side. Some insects secrete a gas 
which is stored in a sack at the posterior end of the body, 
and shot forth with an explosion in case that danger threatens j 
thus by noise and smoke it startles its enemy, which beats a 
retreat. I have heard the little bombardier beetle at such 
times, even at considerable distances. The frightful reports 
about the terrible horn of the tomato-worm larva are mere 
nonsense. A more harmless animal does not exist. My 
little boy of four years, and girl of only two, used to bring 
them to me last summer, and fondle them as admiringly 
as would their father upon receiving them from the delighted 
children. 

If we except bees and wasps, there are no true insects that 
need be feared ; nor need we except them, for with fair usage 
even they are seldem provoked to use their cruel weapon. 

SEX ORGANS OP INSECTS. 

The male organs consist first of the testes (Pig. 10, a) 
which are double organs. There may be from one, as in the 
drone bee, to several, as in some beetles, on each side the 
abdominal cavity. In these vesicles grow the sperm cells or 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



63 



spermatozoa, which, when liberated, pass through a long con- 
voluted tube , the vas-deferens (Fig. 10, b, b), into the seminal 
sack (Fig. 10, c, c), where, in connection with mucous, .they 
are stored. In most insects there are glandular sacks (Fig. 
10, d) joined to these seminal receptacles, which in the male 
bee or drone are very large. The sperm cells mingled with 

Fig. 10. 




Male Organs of Drone, much magnified. 



a— Testes. 

b> b— Vasa deferentia. 
c, c— Seminal sacks. 
<2— Glandular sacks. 



e— Common duct. 

/. 0— Ejaculatory sack. 

h— Penis. 

i— Yellow saccules. 



these viscid secretions, as they appear in the seminal receptacle, 
ready for use, form the seminal fluid. Extending from these 
seminal receptacles is the ejaculatory duct (Fig. 10, e,f,g), 
which in copulation carries the male fluid to the penis (Fig. 
10, h), through which it passes to the spermatheca of the 



G4 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



female. Beside this latter organ are the sheath, the claspers- 
when present, and in the male bee those large yellow sacks 
(Fig. 10, i), which are often seen to dart forth as the drone 
is held in the warm hand. 



Fig. 




Queen Organs, greatly magnified. 



a, a— Ovaries. 
b -Oviducts. 
c — Oviduct. 



d- Sting. 

e— Spermatheca. 



The female organs (Fig. 11) consist of the ovaries (Fig. 11 ? 
a, «), which are situated one on either side of the abdominal 
cavity. From these extend the two oviducts, (Fig. 11, b), 



, MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 65 

which, unite into the common oviduct (Fig. 11, c) through 
which the eggs pass in deposition. In many insects there is 
beside this oviduct, and connected with it, a sack (Fig. 11, 
e) called the spermatheca, which receives the male fluid in 
copulation, and which, by extruding its contents, must ever 
after do the work of impregnation. 

This sack was discovered and its use suggested by 
Malpighi as early as 1686, but its function was not fully 
demonstrated till 1792, when the great anatomist, John 
Hunter, showed that in copulation this was filled. The ovaries 
are multitubular organs. In some insects there are but very 
few tubes — two or three ; while in the queen bee there are 
more than one hundred. In these tubes the ova or eggs 
grow, as do the sperm cells in the vesicles of the testes. 
The number of eggs is variable. Some insects, as the mud- 
wasps, produce very few, while the queen white-ant extrudes 
millions. The end of the oviduct, called the ovipositor, is 
wonderful in its variations. Sometimes it consists of con- 
centric rings, like a spy-glass which may be pushed out or 
drawn in ; sometimes of a long tube armed with augers or 
saws of wonderful finish, to prepare for eggs ; or again of a 
tube which may also serve as a sting. 

Most authors state that insects copulate only once, or at 
least that the female only meets the male but once. My 
pupil, Clement S. Strang, who made a special study of the 
structure and habits of bugs during the past season, noticed 
that the squash-bugs mated many times. It would be inter- 
esting to know whether these females possessed the sperma- 
theca. In some cases, as we shall see in the sequal, the male 
is killed by the copulatory act. I think this curious fatality 
is limited to few species. 

To study viscera, which of course requires very careful dis- 
section, we need more apparatus than has been yet described. 
Here a good lens is indispensable. A small dissecting knife, 
a delicate pair of forceps, and some small, ■ sharp-pointed 
dissecting scissors — those of the renowned Swammerdam were 
so fine at the point that it required a lens to sharpen them 
— which may also serve to clip the wings of queens — are 
requisite to satisfactory work. Specimens put in alcohol 
will be improved, as the oil will be dissolved out and the 



J 



66 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

muscle hardened. Placing them in hot water will do nearly 
as well, in which case oil of turpentine will dissolve off the' 
fat. This may be applied with a camel' s-hair brush. By 
dissecting under water the loose portions will float off, and 
render effective work more easy. Swammerdam, who had 
that most valuable requisite to a naturalist, unlimited patience, 
not only dissected out the parts, but with small glass tubes, 
fine as a hair, he injected the various tubes as the alimentary 
canal and air-tubes. My reader, why may not you look in 
upon those wondrous beauties and marvels of Grod's own 
handiwork — nature's grand exposition ? Father, why would 
not a set of dissecting instruments be a most suitable gift to 
your son ? You might thus sow the seed which would 
germinate into a Swammerdam, and that on your own hearth- 
stone. Messrs. Editors, why do not you, among your apiarian 
supplies, keep boxes of these instruments, and thus aid to 
light the torch of genius and hasten apiarian research ? 

TRANSFORMATIONS OP INSECTS. 

What in all the realm of nature is so worthy to awaken 
delight and admiration as the astonishing changes which 
insects undergo ? Just think of the sluggish, repulsive 
caterpillar, dragging its heavy form over clod or bush, or 
mining in dirt and filth, changed, by the wand of nature's 
great magician, first into the motionless chrysalis, decked with 
green and gold, and beautiful as the gem that glitters on the 
finger of beauty, then bursting forth as the graceful, gorgeous 
butterfly ; which, by its brilliant tints and elegant poise, out- 
rivals even the birds among the life-jewels of nature, and is 
made fit to revel in all her decorative wealth. The little fly, too, 
with wings dyed in rainbow-hues, flitting like a fairy from 
leaf to flower, was but yesterday the repulsive maggot, reveling 
in the veriest filth of decaying nature. The grub to-day 
drags its slimy shape through the slums of earth, on which it 
fattens ; to-morrow it will glitter as the brilliant setting in the 
bracelets and ear-drops of the gay and thoughtless belle. 

There are four separate stages in the development of 
insects : The egg state, the larva, the pupa, and the imago. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 67 

THE EGG. 

This is not unlike the same in higher animals. It has its 
yolk and its surrounding white or albumen, like the eggs of 
all mammals, and farther, the delicate shell, which is familiar 
in the eggs of birds and reptiles. Eggs of insects are often 
beautiful in form and color, and not infrequently ribbed and 
fluted as by a master-hand. The form of eggs is very various 
— spherical, oval, cylindrical, oblong, straight and curved (Fig. 
26, b). All insects seem to be guided by a wonderful 
knowledge, or instinct, or intelligence, in the placing of eggs 
on or near the peculiar food of the larva. Even though in 
many cases such food is no part of the aliment of the imago 
insect. The fly has the refined habits of the epicure, from 
whose cup it daintily sips, yet its eggs are placed in the horse- 
droppings of stable and pasture. 

Inside the egg wonderful changes soon commence, and their 
consummation is a tiny larva. Somewhat similar changes can 
be easily and most profitably studied by breaking and exam- 
ining a hen's egg each successive day of incubation. As 
with the eggs of our own species and of all higher animals, 
so, too, the egg of insects, or the yolk, the essential part — 
the white is only food, so to speak — soon segments or divides 
into a great many cells, these soon unite into a membrane — 
the blastoderm — and this is the initial animal. This blasto- 
derm soon forms a single sack, and not a double sack, one 
above the other, as in our own vertebrate branch. This sack, 
looking like a miniature bag of grain, grows, by absorption, 
becomes articulated, and by budding out is soon provided with 
the various members. As in higher animals, these changes 
are consequent upon heat, and usually, not always, upon the 
incorporations within the eggs of the sperm cells from the 
male, which enter the eggs at openings called micropyles. The 
time it takes the embryo inside the egg to develop is gauged 
by heat, and will, therefore, vary with the season and tem- 
perature, though in different species it varies from days to 
months. The number of eggs, too, which an insect may pro- 
duce, is subject to wide variation. Some insects produce but 
one, two or three, while others, like the queen bee and white 
ant, lay thousands, and in case of the ant, millions. 



68 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

THE LARVA OP INSECTS. 

From the egg comes the larva, also called grub, maggot, 
caterpillar, and very erroneously worm. These are worm- 
shaped (Fig. 12), usually have strong jaws, simple eyes, and 
the body plainly marked into ring divisions. Often as in case 
Fig. 12. 



Larva of Bee. 
of some grubs, larval bees and maggots, there are no legs. In 
most grubs there are six legs, two to each of the three rings 
succeeding the head. Besides these, caterpillars have usually 
ten prop-legs farther back on the body, though a few — the 
loopers or measuring caterpillars — have only four or six, 
while the larvae of the saw-flies have from twelve to sixteen 
of the false or prop-legs. The alimentary canal of larval 
insects is usually short, direct and quite simple, while the 
sex-organs are slightly if at all developed. The larvae of 
insects are voracious eaters — indeed, their only work seems 
to be to eat and grow fat. As the entire growth occurs at 
this stage, their gormandizing habits are the more excusable. 
I have often been astonished at the amount of food that the 
insects in my breeding cases would consume. The length of 
time which insects remain as larvae is very variable. The 
maggot revels in decaying meat but two or three days ; the 
larval bee eats its rich pabulum for nearly a week ; the apple- 
tree borer gnaws away for three years ; while the seventeen- 
year cicada remains a larva for more than sixteen years, 
groping in darkness, and feeding on roots, only to come forth 
for a few days of hilarity, sunshine, and courtship. Surely, 
here is patience exceeding even that of Swammerdam. The 
name larva, meaning masked, was given to this stage by 
Linnaeus, as the mature form of the insect is hidden, and 
cannot be even divined by the unlearned. 

THE PUPA OP INSECTS. 

In this stage the insect is in profound repose, as if resting 
after its long meal, the better to enjoy its active, sportive 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



69 



days-^the joyous honey-moon — soon to come. In this stage 
the insect may look like a seed ; as in the coarctate pupa of 
diptera, so familiar in the "flax-seed" state of the Hessian-fly, 
or in the pupa of the cheese-maggot or the meat-fly. . This 
same form, with more or less modification, prevails in butterfly 
pupae, called, because of their golden spots, chrysalids, and 
in the pupae of moths. Other pupae, as in case of bees (Fig. 
13, g) and beetles, look not unlike the mature insect with its 
Fig. 13. 




Pupa or Nymph of Bee, slightly magnified. 

antennae, legs, and wings closely bound to the body by a thin 
membrane, hence the name which Linne gave — referring to 
this condition — as the insect looks as if wrapped in swaddling 
clothes, the old cruel way of torturing the infant, as if it 
needed holding together. Aristotle called pupae nymphs — 
a name now given to this stage in bees — which name was 
adopted by many entomologists of the seventeeth and 
eighteenth centuries. Inside the pupa skin great changes are 
in progress, for either by modifying the larval organs or 
developing' parts entirely new, by use of the accumulated 
material stored by the larva during its prolonged banquet, 
the wonderful transformation from the sluggish, worm-like 
larva to the active, bird-like imago is accomplished. Some- 
times the pupa is surrounded by a silken cocoon, either thick, 
as the cocoon of some moths, or thin, as are the cocoons of 
bees. These cocoons are spun by the larvae as their last toil 
before assuming the restful pupa state. The length of time 



70 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

in the pupa-stage is very various, lasting from a few days to 
as many months. Sometimes insects which are two-brooded 
remain as pupa but a few days in summer, while in winter 
they are months passing the quiescent period. Our cabbage- 
butterfly illustrates this peculiarity. Others, like the 
Hessian -fly and codling- moth, remain through the long, cold 
months as larvae. How wonderful is this ! The first brood 
of larvae change to pupae at once, the last brood, though the 
weather be just as hot, wait over inside the cocoon till the 
warm days of coming spring. 

THE IMAGO STAGE. 

This term refers to the last or winged form, and was given 
by Linne because the image of the insect is now real and not 
masked as when in the larva state. Now the insect has its 
full-formed legs and wings, its compound eyes, complex 
mouth-parts, and the fully developed sex-organs. In fact, 
the whole purpose of the insect now seems to be to repro- 
duce itself. Many insects do not even eat, only flit in merry 
marriage mood for a brief space, when the male flees this life 
to be quickly followed by the female, she only waiting to 
place her eggs where the prospective infants may find suitable 
food. Some insects not only place their eggs, but feed and 
care for their young, as is true of ants, wasps and bees. 
Again, as in case of some species of ants and bees, abortive 
females perform all, or most of the labor in caring for the young. 
The life of the imago also varies much as to duration. Some 
live but for a day, others make merry for several days, while 
a few species live for months. Very few imagos survive the 
whole year. 

INCOMPLETE TRANSFORMATIONS. 

Some insects, like the bugs, lice, grasshoppers and locusts, 
are quite alike at all stages of growth, after leaving the egg. 
The only apparent difference is the smaller size and the 
absence or incomplete development of the wings in the larvaa 
and pupae. The habits and structure from first to last seem 
to be much the same. Here, as before, the full development 
of the sex-organs occurs only in the imago. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 71 

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE 
HONEY-BEE. 

With a knowledge of the anatomy and some glimpses of 
the physiology of insects in general, we shall now find it easy 
to learn the special anatomy and physiology of the highest 
insects of the order. 

THREE KINDS OP BEES IN EACH FAMILY. 

As we have already seen, a very remarkable feature in the 
economy of the honey-bee, described even by Aristotle, which 
is true of many other bees, and also of ants and many wasps, 
is the presence in each family of three distinct kinds, which 
differ in form, color, structure, size, habits and function. 
Thus we have the queen, a number of drones, and a far 
greater number of workers. Huber, Bevan, Munn and Kirby 
also speak of a fourth kind blacker than the usual workers. 
These are accidental, and are, as conclusively shown by Von 
Berlepsch, ordinary workers, more deeply colored by loss of 
hair, dampness, or some other atmospheric condition. Ameri- 
can apiarists are too familiar with these black bees, for after 
our severe winters they prevail in the colony, and, as remarked 
by the noted Baron, u They quickly disappear." Munn also 
tells of a fifth kind, with a top-knot, which appears at swarming 
seasons. I am at a great loss to know what he refers to, 
unless it be the pollen masses of the asclepias or milk-weed, 
which sometimes fasten to our bees and become a severe 
burden. 

THE QUEEN BEE. 

The queen (Fig. 14), although referred to as the mother 
bee, was called the king by Virgil, Pliny, and by writers as 
late as the last century, though in the ancient "Bee Master's 
Farewell," by John Keys, published in London in 1796, I 
find an admirable description of the queen bee, with her 
function correctly stated. Reaumur as quoted by "Wildman 
on Bees," published in London in 1770, says " this third sort 
has a grave and sedate walk, is armed with a sting, and is 
mother of all the others." 

Huber, to whom every apiarist owes so much, and who, 
though blind, through the aid of his devoted wife and intel- 



72 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

ligent servant, Frances Burnens, developed so many interest- 
ing truths, demonstrated the fact of the queen's maternity. 
This author's work, second edition, published in Edinburgh, 

Fig. 14. 




Queen Bee, magnified. 

in 1808, gives a full history of his woi derful observations 
and experiments, and must ever rank with Langstroth as a 
classic, worthy of study by all. 

The queen, then, is the mother bee ; in other words, a fully 
developed female.' Her ovaries (Fig. 11, a, a) are very 
large, nearly filling her long abdomen. The tubes already 
described as composing them are very numerous, while the 
spermatheca (Fig. 11, e) is plainly visible. This is muscular, 
receives abundant nerves, and thus, without doubt, may 
or may not be compressed to force the sperm cells in con- 
tact with the eggs as they pass by the duct. Leuckart esti- 
mates that the spermatheca will hold more than 25,000,000 
spermatozoa. 

The possession of the ovaries and attendant organs, is 
the chief structural peculiarity which marks the queen, as 
these are the characteristic marks of females among all 
animals. But she has other peculiarities worthy of mention : 
She is longer than either drones or workers, being more than 
seven-eighths of an inch in length, and, with her long tapering 
abdomen, is not without real grace and beauty. The queen's 
mouth organs, too, are developed to a less degree than are 
those of the worker bees. Her jaws (Fig. 21, b) or mandibles 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



73 



are weaker, with a rudimentary tooth, and her tongue or 
ligula (Fig. 15, a), as also the labial palpi (Fig. 15, b) 
and maxillae are considerably shorter. Her eyes, like the 
same in the worker-bee (Fig. 5), are smaller than those of the 

Fig. 15. 




a— Ligula. 

d, d— Paragloss*. 



Labium of Queen. 



b— Labial palpi. 



drones, and do not meet above. So the three ocelli are situated 
above and between. The queen's wings, too, (Fig. 14) are 
relatively shorter than those either of the workers or drones, for 
instead of attaining to the end of the body, they reach but little 
beyond the third joint of the abdomen. The queen, though 
she has the characteristic posterior tibia and basal tarsus 
(Fig. 16, p), in respect to breadth, has not the cavity and 



74 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

surrounding hairs, which form the pollen baskets of the- 
workers. The queen possesses a sting (Fig. 11, d) which 
is longer than that of the workers, and resembles that of 
the bumble-bees in being curved, and that of bumble-bees, 
and wasps in having few and short barbs — the little projections 
which point back like the barb of a fish-hook, and which, in 
case of the workers, prevent the withdrawing of the instru- 
ment, when once fairly inserted. While there are seven 
quite prominent barbs on each shaft of the worker's sting, 
there are onl.v three on those of the queen, and these are 

Fig. 16. 



Part of Leg of Queen, magnified. 

t— Tibia. p— Broadened tibia and basal tarsus. 

ts— Tarsal joints. 

very short, and, as in a worker's sting, they are successively 
shorter as we recede from the point of the weapon. Aristotle 
says that the queen will seldom use her sting, which I have 
found true. I have often tried to provoke a queen's anger, 
but never with any evidence of success. Neighbour (page 14, 
note) gives three cases where queens used their stings, in one 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 75 

of which cases she was disabled from farther egg-laying. She 
stings with slight effect. 

The queen, like the neuters, is developed from an impreg- 
nated egg, which, of course, could only come from a queen 
that had previously mated. These eggs are not placed in a 
horizontal cell, but in one specially prepared for their recep- 
tion (Fig. 26, i). These queen cells are usually built on the 
edge of the comb, or around an opening in it, which is neces- 
sitated from their size and form, as usually the combs are too 
close together to permit their location elsewhere. These cells 
extend either vertically or diagonally downward, are composed 
of wax mixed with pollen, and in size and form much resemble 
a pea-nut. The eggs must be placed in these cells, either by 
the queen or workers. Huber, who though blind had 
wondrous eyes, also witnessed the act. I have frequently 
seen eggs in these cells, and without exception in the exact 
position in which the queen always places her eggs in the 
other cells. John Keys, in the old work already referred to, 
whose descriptions, though penned so long ago, are wonderfully 
accurate, and indicate great care, candor, and conscientious 
truthfulness, asserts that the queen is five times as long laying 
a royal egg as she is the others. From the character of his 
work, and its early publication, I can but think that he had 
witnessed this rare sight. Some candid apiarists of our own 
time and country — E. Gallup among the rest — claim to have 
witnessed the act. / The eggs are so well glued, and are so 
delicate, that, with Neighbour, I doubt the possibility of a 
removal. The opponents to this view base their belief on a 
supposed discord between the queen and neuters. This 
antagonism is inferred, and I have but little faith in the 
inference, or the argument from it. I know that when royal 
cells are to be torn down, and inchoate queens destroyed, the 
workers aid the queen in this destruction. I have also seen 
queens pass by unguarded queen-cells, and yet respect them. 
I have also seen several young queens dwelling amicably 
together in the same hive.'*: Is it not probable that the bees are 
united in whatever is to be accomplished, and that when 
queens are to be destroyed all spring to the work, and when 
they are to live all regard them as sacred ? It is true that 



76 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

the actions of bees are controlled and influenced by tbe sur- 
rounding conditions or circumstances, but I have yet to see 
satisfactory proof of the old theory that these conditions 
impress differently the queen and the workers. The condi- 
tions which lead to the building of queen-cells and the 
peopling of the same are — loss of queen, when a worker 
larva from one to four days old will be surrounded by a cell ; 
inability of a queen to lay impregnated eggs, her spermatheca 
having become emptied ; great number of worker-bees in the 
hive ; restricted quarters ; the queen not having place to 
deposit eggs, or the workers little or no room to store honey; 
and lack of ventilation, so tbat the hive becomes too close. 
These last three conditions are most likely to occur at times 
of great honey secretion. 

A queen may be developed from an egg, or from a worker 
larva less than three days old. Mr. Doolittle has known 
queens to be reared from worker larvae taken at four-and-a- 
half days from hatching. In this latter case, the cells 
adjacent to the one containing the selected larva are removed, 
and the larva surrounded by a royal cell. The development 
of the queen larva is much like that of the worker, soon to 
be detailed, except that it is more rapid, and is fed richer and 
more plenteous food, called royal jelly. This peculiar food, 
as also its use and abundance in the cell, was first described 
by Schirach, a Saxon clergyman, who wrote a work on bees in 
1771. According to Hunter, this royal pabulum is richer in 
nitrogen than that of the common larvae. It is thick, like rich 
cream ; slightly yellow, and so abundant that the queen larva 
not only floats in it during all its period of growth, but quite 
a large amount remains after her queenship vacates the cell. 
We often find this royal jelly in incomplete queen-cells, with- 
out larvae. Mr. Quinby suggests that this is stored for future 
use. 

What a mysterious circumstance is this : These royal scions 
simply receive a more abundant and sumptuous diet, and 
occupy a more ample habitation — for I have more than once 
confirmed the statement of Mr. Quinby, that the direction of 
the cell is immaterial — : and yet what a marvelous transforma- 
tion. Not only are the ovaries developed and filled with eggs, 
but the mouth-organs, the wings, the legs, and the sting, aye, 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 77 

and the size, form and habits are all wondrously changed. 
That the development of parts should be accelerated, and the 
size increased is not so surprising — as in breeding other 
insects I have frequently found that kind and amount of food, 
would hasten or retard growth, and might even cause a 
dwarfed imago — but that it should so essentially modify the 
structure, is certainly a rare and unique circumstance, hardly 
to be found except here and in related animals. Bevan has 
suggested that fertile workers, while larvae, have received 
some of this royal jelly, from their position near a developing 
queen. Langstroth supposes that they receive some royal 
jelly, purposely given by the workers, and I had previously 
thought this reasonable, and probably true. But these pests 
of the apiarist, and especially of the breeder, almost always, 
so far as I have observed, make their appearance in colonies 
long queenless, and I have noticed a case similar to that given 
by Quinby, where these occurred in a nucleus where no queen 
had been developed. May it not be true, that a desire for 
eggs stimulates growth of the ovaries, growth of eggs in the 
ovarian tubes, and consequent ability to deposit. The common 
high-holder, Colaptes auratus — a bird belonging to the wood- 
pecker family, usually lays five eggs, and only five ; but let 
cruel hands rob her of these promises of future loved ones — 
and wondrous to relate, she continues to lay more than a 
score. One thus treated, here on the College campus, actually 
laid more than thirty eggs. So we see that animal desires 
may influence and move organs that are generally independent 
of the will. 

The larval queen is longer and more rapid of development 
than the other larvae. When developed from the egg — as in 
case of normal swarming— the larva feeds for five days, when 
the cell is capped by the workers. The infant queen 
then spins her cocoon, which occupies about one day. The 
end of the cocoon is left open. Some one has suggested that 
this is an act of thoughtful generosity on the part of the 
queen larva, thus to render her own destruction more easy, 
should the welfare of the colony demand it, as now a sister 
queen may safely give the fatal sting. The queen now spends 
nearly three days in absolute repose. Such rest is common 
to all cocoon-spinning larvae. The spinning, which is done by 



78 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

a rapid motion to and fro of the head, always carrying the 
delicate thread, much like the moving shuttle of the weaver, 
seems to bring exhaustion, and need of repose. She now 
assumes the nymph or pupa state (Fig. 26, i). At the end 
of the sixteenth day she comes forth a queen. Huber states that 
when a queen emerges, the bees are thrown into a joyous excite- 
ment, so that he noted a rise in the temperature of the hive 
from 92° F. to 104° F. I have never tested this matter 
accurately, but I have failed to notice any marked demonstra- 
tion on the natal day of her lady-ship the queen, or extra 
respect paid her as a virgin. When queens are started from 
worker larvae, they will issue as imagos in ten or twelve days 
from the date of their new prospects. Mr. Doolittle writes 
me that he has known them to issue in eight and one-half 
days. 

As the queen's development is probably due to superior 
quality and increased quantity of food, it would stand to 
reason that queens started from eggs are preferable ; the more 
so, as under normal circumstances, I believe, they are almost 
always thus started. The best experience sustains this 
position. As the proper food and temperature could best be 
secured in a full colony — and here again the natural economy 
of the hive adds to our argument — we should infer that the 
best queens would be reared in strong colonies, or at least kept 
in such colonies till the cells were capped. Experience also 
confirms this view. As the quantity and quality of food, 
and the general activity of the bees is directly connected with 
the full nourishment of the queen-larva, and as these are 
only at the maximum in times of active gathering — the time 
when queen-rearing is naturally started by the bees — we 
should also conclude that queens reared at such seasons are 
superior. My experience — and I have carefully observed in 
this connection — most emphatically sustains this view. 

Five or six days after issuing from the cell — Neighbour 
says the third day — if the day is pleasant, the queen goes 
forth on her "marriage flight ;" otherwise she will improve 
the first pleasant day thereafter for this purpose. Huber was 
the first to prove that impregnation always takes place on the 
wing. Bonnet also proved that the same is true of ants, 
though in this case millions of queens and drones often swarm 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 79 

out at once. I have myself witnessed several of these whole- 
sale matrimonial excursions among ants. I have also fre- 
quently taken bumble-bees in copulo while on the wing. I have 
also noticed both ants and bumble-bees to fall while united, 
probably borne down by the expiring males. That butterflies, 
moths, dragon-flies, etc., mate on the wing is a matter of 
common observation. That it is possible to impregnate 
queens when confined, I think very doubtful. The queens 
will caress the drones, but the latter seem not to heecl their 
advances. That this ever has been done I also question, though 
many think they have positive proof that it has occurred. 
Yet, as there are so many chances to be mistaken, and as 
experience and observation are so excessive against the possi- 
bility, I think that these may be cases of hasty or inaccurate 
judgment. Many, very many, with myself, have followed 
Huber in clipping the queen's wing, only to produce a sterile 
or drone-laying queen. Prof. Leuckart believes that successful 
mating demands that the large air-sacks (Fig. 2,f) of the drones 
shall be filled, which he thinks is only possible during flight. 
The demeanor of the drones leads me to think, that the 
excitement of flight, like the warmth of the hand, is necessary 
to induce the sexual impulse. 

I presume, that in all the future, Huber's statement that the 
queen must take wing to be impregnated, will remain unrefuted. 
Yet it will do no harm to keep trying. Success may come. 
Mating, too, in green-houses or rooms is also impracticable. 
I have given this thorough trial. The drones are incorrigible 
cowards, and their inordinate fear seems even to overcome the 
sexual desires. 

If the queen fails to find an admirer the first day, she will 
go forth again and again till she succeeds. Huber stated 
that after twenty-one days the case is hopeless. Bevan states 
that if impregnated from the fifteenth to the twenty-first she 
will be largely a drone-laying queen. That such absolute 
dates can be fixed in either of the above cases is very ques- 
tionable. Yet, all experienced breeders know that queens 
kept through the winter as virgins are sure to remain so. It 
is quite likely that the long inactivity of the spermatheca 
wholly or in part paralyzes it, so that queens that are late in 
mating cannot impregnate the eggs as she desires. This 



80 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

would accord with what we know of muscular organs. Ber- 
lepsch believed that a queen that commenced laying as a virgin 
could never lay impregnated eggs, even though she afterwards 
mated. Langstroth thought that he had observed' to the 
contrary. 

If the queen be observed after a successful " wedding tour," 
she will be seen to bear the marks of success in the pendant 
drone appendages, consisting of the penis, the yellow cul-de- 
sacks, and the hanging thread-like ducts. 

It is not at all likely that a queen, after she has met a 
drone, ever leaves the hive again except that she leaves with 
a swarm. Some of the observing apiarists think that an old 
queen may be again impregnated. The fact that queens, with 
clipped wings, are fertile as long as others, makes me think 
that cases which have led to such conclusions are capable of 
other explanation. 

If the queen lays eggs before meeting the drone, or if for 
any reason she fails to mate, her eggs will only pi'oduce male 
bees. This strange anomaly — development of the eggs with- 
out impregnation — was discovered and proved by Dzierzon, in 
1845. Dr. Dzierzon, who, as a student orpractical and scien- 
tific apiculture, must rank with the great Huber, is a Roman 
Catholic priest of Carlsmarkt, Germany. This doctrine — 
called parthenogenesis, which means produced from a virgin 
— is still doubted by some quite able bee-keepers, though the 
proofs are irrefragable : ]st. Unmated queens will lay eggs 
that will develop, but drones always result. 2d. Old queens 
often become drone-layers, but examination shows that the 
spermatheca is void of seminal fluid. Such an examination 
was first made by Prof. Siebold, the great German anatomist, 
in 1843, and later by Leuckart and Leidy. I have myself 
made several such examinations. The spermatheca can 
easily be seen by the unaided vision, and by crushing it on a 
glass slide, by compressing with a thin glass cover, the dif- 
ference between the contained fluid in the virgin and impreg- 
nated queen is very patent, even with a low power. In the 
latter it is more viscid and yellow, and the vesicle more dis- 
tended. By use of a high power, the active spermatozoa or 
sperm-cells become visible. 3d. Eggs in drone-cells are 
found by the microscopist to be void of the sperm-cells, which 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 81 

are always found in all other fresh-laid eggs. This most con- 
vincing, and interesting observation, was first made by Von 
Siebold, at the suggestion of Berlepsch. It is quite diflicult 
to show this. Leuckart tried before Von Siebold, at Ber- 
lepsch's apiary, but failed. I have also tried to discover 
these sperm-cells in worker-eggs, but as yet have been unsuc- 
cessful. Siebold has noted the same facts in eggs of wasps. 
4th. Dr. Donhoff, of G-ermany, in 1855, took an egg from a 
drone-cell, and by artificial impregnation produced a worker- 
bee. Such an operation, to be successful, must be performed 
as soon as the egg is laid. 

Parthenogenesis, in the production of males, has also been 
found by Siebold to be true of other bees and wasps, 
and of some of the lower moths, in the production of both 
males and females. While the great Bonnet first discovered 
what may be noticed on any summer day, all about us, even 
on the house-plants at our very windows, that parthenogenesis 
is best illustrated by the aphides or plant lice. In the fall 
males and females appear, which mate, when the female lays, 
eggs, which in the spring produce only females ; these again 
produce only females, and thus on, for several generations, 
till with the cold of autumn come again the males and 
females. Bonnet observed seven successive generations of 
productive virgins. Duval noted nine generations in seven 
months, while Kyber observed production exclusively by 
parthenogenesis in a heated room for four years. So, we see, 
that this strange and almost incredible method of increase, is 
not rare in the great insect world. 

About two days after she is impregnated, the queen, under 
normal circumstances, commences to lay, usually worker-eggs, 
and as the condition of the hive seldom impels to swarming 
the same summer, so that no drones are required, she usually 
lays no others the first season. 

It is frequently noticed that the young queen at first lays 
quite a number of drone-eggs. Queen-breeders often observe 
this in their nuclei. This continues for only a few days. 
This does not seem strange. The act of forcing the sperm-cells 
from the spermatheca is muscular and voluntary, and that 
these muscles should not always act promptly at first, is not 
.strange, nor is it unprecedented. Mr. Wagner suggested that 



82 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

the size of the cell determined the sex, as in the small cells 
the pressure on the abdomen forced the fluid from the sperma- 
theca. Mr. Quinby also favored this view. I greatly ques- 
tion this theory. All observing apiarists have known eggs to 
be laid in worker-cells, ere the cell was hardly commenced, 
when there could be no pressure. In case of queen-cells, too, 
if the queen does lay the eggs — as I believe — these would be 
unimpregnated, as the cell is very large. I know the queen 
sometimes passes from drone to worker-cells very abruptly 
while laying, as I have witnessed such a procedure — the same 
that so greatly rejoiced the late Baron of Berlepsch, after 
weary hours of watching — but that she can thus control at 
the instant this process of adding or withholding the sperm- 
cells, certainly seems not so strange as that the spermatheca, 
hardly bigger than a pin-head, could supply these cells ' for 
months, yes, and for years. Who that has seen the bot-fly 
dart against the horse's legs, and as surely leave the tiny 
yellow egg, can doubt but that insects possess very sensitive 
oviducts, and can extrude the minute eggs just at pleasure. 
That a queen may force single eggs, at will, past the mouth 
of the spermatheca, and at the same time add or withhold the 
sperm-cells, is, I think, without question, true. What gives 
added force to this view, is the fact that other bees, wasps 
and ants exercise the same volition, and can have no aid from 
cell-pressure, as all the eggs are laid in receptacles of the 
same size. But the Baron of Berlepsch, worthy to be a 
friend of Dzierzon, has fully decided the matter. He has 
shown that old drone cells are as small as new worker-cells, 
and yet each harbors its own brood. Very small queens, too, 
make no mistakes. With no drone-cells, the queen will some- 
times lay drone-eggs in worker-cells, in which drones will then 
be reared. And will, if she must, though with great 
reluctance, lay worker-eggs in drone-cells. 

Before laying an egg, the queen takes a look into the cell, 
probably to see if all is right. If the cell contains any 
honey, pollen, or an egg, she usually passes it by, though 
when crowded, a queen will sometimes, especially if young, 
insert two or three eggs in a cell, and sometimes, in such 
cases, she drops them, when the bees show their dislike of 
waste, and appreciation of good living, by making a breakfast 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 83 

of tliem. If the queen finds the cell to her liking, she turns 
about, inserts her abdomen, and in an instant the tiny egg is 
glued, in position (Fig. 26, b) to the bottom of the cell. 

The queen, -when considered in relation to the other bees 
of the colony, possesses a surprising longevity. It is not 
surprising for her to attain the age of three years in the full 
possession of her powers, while they have been known to do- 
good work for five years. Queens, often at the expiration of 
one, two, three or four years, depending on their vigor and 
excellence, either cease to be fertile, or else become impotent 
to lay impregnated eggs — the spermatheca having become 
emptied of its sperm-cells. In such cases the workers usually 
supersede the queen ; that is they destroy the old queen, ere 
all the worker-eggs are gone, and take of the few remaining 
ones to start queen-cells, and thus rear young, fertile and. 
vigorous queens. 

It sometimes happens, though rarely, that a fine-looking 
queen, with full-formed ovaries, and large spermatheca, well- 
filled with male fluid, will deposit freely, but none of the eggs 
will hatch. Readers of the bee-publications know that I 
have frequently received such for dissection. The first I ever 
got was a remarkably fine-looking Italian, received from the 
late Dr. Hamlin, of Tennessee. All such queens that I have 
examined seem perfect, even though scrutinized with a high- 
power objective. We can only say that the egg is at fault, 
as frequently transpires with higher animals, even to the 
highest. These females are barren ; through some fault with 
the ovaries, the eggs grown therein are sterile. To detect 
just what is the trouble with the egg is a very difficult problem, 
if it is capable of solution at all. I have tried to determine 
the ultimate cause, but without success. 

The function of the' queen is simply to lay eggs, and thus 
keep the colony populous ; and this she does with an energy 
that is fairly startling. A good queen in her best estate will 
lay two or three thousand eggs a day. I have seen a queen 
in my observing hive, lay for some time at the rate of four 
eggs per minute, and have proved by actual computation of 
brood cells, that a queen may lay over three thousand eggs in 
a day. Langstroth and Berlepsch both saw queens lay at the 
rate of six eggs a minute. 



84 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

The latter had a queen that laid three thousand and twenty- 
one eggs in 24 hours, by actual count, and in 20 days she 
laid fifty-seven thousand. This queen continued prolific for 
five years, and must have laid, says the Baron, at a low 
estimate, more than 1,300,000 eggs. Dzierzon says queens 
may lay 1,000,000 eggs, and I think these authors have not 
exaggerated. Yet, with even these figures as an advertise- 
ment, the queen bee cannot boast of superlative fecundity, 
as the queen white-ant — an insect closely related to the bees 
in habits, though not in structure, as the white-ants are lace- 
wings and belong to the sub-order Neuroptera, which includes 
our day-flies, dragon-flies, etc. — is known to lay over 80,000 
eggs daily. Yet this poor helpless thing, whose abdomen is 
the size of a man's thumb, and composed almost wholly of 
eggs, while the rest of her body is not larger than the same 
in our common ants, has no other amusement ; she cannot 
walk ; she cannot even feed herself or care for her eggs. 
What wonder then that she should attempt big things in the 
way of egg-laying ? She has nothing else to do, or to feel 
proud of. 

Different queens vary as much in fecundity as do different 
breeds of fowls. Some queens are so prolific that they fairly 
demand hives of India rubber to accommodate them, keeping 
their hives gushing with bees and profitable activity ; 
while others are so inferior, that the colonies make a poor, 
sickly effort to survive at all, and usually succumb early, 
before those adverse circumstances which are ever waiting to 
confront all life on the globe. The activity of the queen, too, 
is governed largely by the activity of the workers. The 
queen will either lay sparingly, or stop altogether, in the 
interims of storing honey, while, on the other hand, she is 
stimulated to lay to her utmost capacity, when all is life and 
activity in the hive. 

It would seem that the queen either reasons from conditions, 
is taught by instinct, or else that without her volition the 
general activity of the worker-bees stimulates the ovai'ies, how, 
we know not, to grow more eggs. We know that such a 
stimulus is born of desh-e, in case of the high-holder, already 
referred to. That the queen may have control of the activity 
of her ovaries, either directly or indirectly, through reflex 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 85 

nervous action induced by the general excitement of the bees, 
which always follows active storing, is not only possible, but 
quite likely. 

The old poetical notion that the queen is the revered and 
admired sovereign of the colony, whose pathway is ever lined 
by obsequious courtiers, whose person is ever the recipient of 
loving caresses, and whose will is law in this bee-hive king- 
dom, controlling all the activities inside the hive, and leading 
the colony whithersoever they may go, is unquestionably mere 
fiction. In the hive, as in the world, individuals are valued 
for what they are worth. The queen, as the most important 
individual, is regarded with solicitude, and her removal or loss 
noted with consternation, as the welfare of the colony is 
threatened ; yet, let the queen become useless, and she is 
despatched with the same absence of emotion that charac- 
terizes the destruction of the drones when they have become 
supernumeraries. It is very doubtful if emotion or senti- 
mentality are ever moving forces among the lower animals. 
There are probably certain natural principles that govern in 
the economy of the hive, and aught that conspires against, or 
tends to intercept the action of these principles, becomes an 
enemy to the bees. All are interested, and doubtless more 
united than is generally believed, in a desire to promote the free 
action of these principles. No doubt the principle of antag- 
onism among the various bees has been overrated. Even, the 
drones, when they are being killed off in the autumn, make a 
sickly show of defense, as much as to say, the welfare of the 
colony demands that such worthless vagrants should be exter- 
minated ; " so mote it be ;" go ahead. The statement, too, 
that there is often serious antagonism between the queen and 
workers, as to the destruction or preservation of inchoate 
queens, yet in the cell, is a matter which may well be inves- 
tigated. It is most probable that what tends most for the 
prosperity of the colony is well understood by all, and with- 
out doubt there is harmoniaus action among all the denizens 
of the hive, to foster that which will advance the general 
welfare, or to make war on whatever may tend to interfere 
with it. If the course of any of the bees seems wavering 
and inconsistent, we may rest assured that circumstances have 
-changed, and that could we perceive the bearing of all the 



86 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

surrounding conditions, all would appear consistent and har- 
monious. 

THE DRONES. 

These are the male bees, and are generally found in the 
hive only from May to November ; though they may remain 
all winter, and are not infrequently absent during the summer. 
Their presence or absence depends on the present and pros- 
pective condition of the colony. If they are needed, or 
likely to be needed, then they are present. There are in 

Fig. 17. 




Drone Bee, magnified. 

nature several hundred in each colony. The number may 
and should be greatly reduced by the apiarist. These (Fig. 
17) are shorter than the queen, being less than three-fourths 
of an inch in length, are more robust and bulky than either 
the queen or workers, and are easily recognized when flying 
by their loud, startling hum. As in other societies, the least 
useful make the most noise. This loud hum is caused by the 
less rapid vibration of their large, heavy wings. Their flight 
is more heavy and lumbering than that of the workers. Their 
ligula, labial palpi and maxillas — like the same in the queen 
bee — are short, while their jaws (Fig. 21, a) possess the rudi- 
mentary tooth, and are much the same in form as those of 
the queen, but are heavier, though not so strong as those of 
the workers. Their eyes (Fig. 4) are very prominent, meet 
above, and thus the simple eyes are thrown forward. Their 
posterior legs are convex on the outside (Fig. 18), so, like the 
queens, they have no pollen baskets. The drones are without 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



87 



the defensive organ, having no sting, while their special sex- 
organs (Fig. 10) are not unlike those of other insects, and have 
already been sufficiently described. 

It was discovered by Dzierzon, in 1845, that the drones 
hatch from unimpregnated eggs. This strange phenomenon, 
seemingly so incredible, is as has been shown in speaking of 

Fig. 18. 




Part of Leg of Drone, magnified. 



t— Tibia. 

V— Broadened tibia and basal tarsus. 



t s— Joints of Tarsus, 
c— Claws. 



These eggs 



the queen, easily proved and beyond question 
may come from an unimpregnated queen, a fertile worker — 
which will soon be further described — or from an impregnated 
queen, which may voluntarily prevent impregnation. Such 
eggs may be placed in the larger horizontal cells (Fig. 28, a), 
in manner already described. As stated by Bevan, the drone 
feeds six and a half days as a larva, before the cell is capped. 
The capping of the drone-cells is very convex, and projects 
beyond the plane of the same in worker-cells, so that the 



88 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

drone brood is easily distinguished from worker, and from the 
darker color — the wax being thicker and less pure — the cap- 
ping of both drone and worker brood-cells enable us easily to 
distinguish them from honey-cells. In twenty-four days from 
the laying of the egg, the drones come forth from the cells. 
Of course variation of temperature, and other conditions, as 
variable amount of diet, may slightly retard or advance the 
development of any brood, in the different stages. The 
drones — in fact all bees — when they first emerge from the 
cells, are gray, soft, and appear generally unsophisticated. 

Just what the longevity of the male bee is, I am unable to 
state. It is probable, judging from analogy, that they live 
till accident, the worker bees, or the performance of their 
natural function causes their death. The worker-bees are 
liable to kill off the drones, which they do by constantly biting 
and worrying them. They may also destroy the drone-brood. 
It is not very rare to see workers carrying out immature 
drones even in mid-summer. At the same time, too, they 
may destroy inchoate queens. Such action is prompted by a 
sudden check in the yield of honey, and with the drones is 
most common at the close of the season. The bees seem 
very cautious and far-sighted. If the signs of the times 
presage a famine, they stay all proceedings looking to the 
increase of colonies. On the other hand, unlimited honey, 
rapid increase of brood, crowded quarters — whatever the age 
of the queen — is sure to bring many of the male bees. While 
any circumstances that indicate a future need of drones will 
prevent their destruction even in late autumn. 

The function of the drones is solely to impregnate the 
queen, though when present they may add animal heat. 
That their nutrition is active, is suggested by the fact, that 
upon dissection, we always find their capacious stomachs filled 
with honey. 

Impregnation of the queen always takes place, as before 
stated, while on the wing, outside the hive, usually during the 
heat of warm sunshiny days. After mating, the drone organs 
adhere to the queen, and may be seen hanging to her for some 
hours. The copulatory act is fatal to the drones. By hold- 
ing, a drone in the hand, the ejection of the sex-organs is often 
produced, and always followed by immediate death. As the 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 89 

queen only meets a single drone, and that only once, it might 
be asked why nature was so improvident as to decree hundreds 
of drones to an apiary or colony, whereas a score would 
suffice as well. Nature takes cognizance of the importance 
of the queen, and as she goes forth amidst the myriad dangers 
of the outer world, it is safest and best that her stay abroad 
be not protracted ; that the experience be not repeated, and 
•especially, that her meeting a drone be not delayed. Hence 
the superabundance of drones — especially under natural con- 
ditions, isolated in forest homes, where ravenous birds are 
ever on* the alert for insect game — is most wise and provident. 
Nature is never " penny wise and pound foolish." In our 
apiaries the need is wanting, and the condition, as it exists in 
nature, is not enforced. 

The fact that parthenogenesis prevails in the production of 
the drones, has led to the theory that from a pure queen, 
however mated, must ever come a pure drone. My own expe- 
rience and observation, which I believe are those of all 
apiarists, has confirmed this theory. Yet, if the impure 
mating of our cows, horses, and fowls, renders the females of 
mixed blood ever afterward, as is believed and taught by many 
who would seem most competent to judge — though I must 
say I am somewhat skeptical in the matter — then we must 
look closely as to our bees, for certainly, if a mammal, and 
especially a fowl, is tainted by impure mating, then we may 
expect the same of insects. In fowls such influence, if it 
exists, must come simply from the presence in the female 
generative organs of the germ-cells, or spermatozoa, and in 
mammals, too, there is little more than this, for though they 
are viviparous, so that the union and contact of the offspring 
and mother seems very intimate, during foetal development, 
yet there is no intermingling of the blood, for a membrane ever 
separates that of the mother from that of the foetus, and only 
the nutritious and waste elements pass from one to the other. 
To claim that the mother is tainted through the circulation, 
is like claiming that the same result would follow her inhaling 
the breath of her progeny after birth. I can only .say, that I 
believe this whole matter is still involved in doubt, and still 
needs more careful, scientific and prolonged observation. 



90 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

THE NEUTERS, OR WORKER-BEES. 

These, called "the bees," by Aristotle, and even by 
Wildman and Bevan, are by far the most numerous individu- 
als of the hive — there being from 15,000 to 40,000 in every 
good colony. It is possible for a colony to be even much more 

Fig. 19. 




Worker-Bee, magnified. 

populous than this. These are also the smallest bees of the 
colony, as they measure but little more than one-half of an 
inch in length (Fig. 19). 

The workers — as taught by Schirach, and proved by Mile. 
Jurine, of Geneva, Switzerland, who, at the request of Huber, 
sought for and found, by aid of her microscope, the abortive 
ovaries — are undeveloped females. Rarely, and probably very 
rarely, except that a colony is long or often queenless, as is 
frequently true of our nuclei, these bees are so far developed 
as to produce eggs, which, of course, would always be drone 
eggs. Such workers — known as fertile — were first noticed 
by Riein, while Huber actually saw one in the act of egg- 
laying. Except in the power to produce eggs, they seem not 
unlike the other workers. Huber supposed that these were 
reared in cells contiguous to royal cells, and thus received 
royal food by accident. The fact, as stated by Mr. Quinby, 
that these occur in colonies where queen-larvae were never 
reared, is fatal to the above theory. Langstroth and Berlepsch 
thought that these bees, while larvse, were fed, though too spar- 
ingly, with the royal aliment, by bees in need of a queen, and 
hence the accelerated development. Such may be the true 
explanation. Yet if, as some apiarists aver, these appear 
where no brood has been fed, and so must be common workers, 
changed after leaving the cell, as the result of a felt need, 



Fig. 20. 




Tongue of a Worker-Bee, much magnified. 



A— Maxillae and labium. 
mp, mp — Max. palpi. fc, 7c— Labia palpi, 

o— Sub mentum. t— Tongue. 

m— Men turn. /—Funnel. 

p, p— Paraglossse. 
B— Ligula, with sack distended, 
s— Colorless membrane. /—Funnel. JS— Tubular rod. 

C— Cross-section of ligula. 
S— Sheath. JR— Tubular rod. s, s— Colorless membrane. 



, dw, mx— Maxillae 
c, c— Cardos. 
St, St— Stipes. 
1, 1— Lacinias. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 91 

then we must conclude that development and growth — as with 
the high-holder — spring from desire. The generative organs 
are very sensitive, and exceedingly susceptible to impressions, 
and we may yet have much to learn as to the delicate forces 
which will move them to growth and activity. Though these 
fertile workers are a poor substitute for a queen, as they are 
incapable of producing any but drones, and are surely the 
harbingers of death and extinction to the colony, yet they 
seem to satisfy the workers, for they will not brook the pres- 
ence of a queen when a fertile worker is in the hive, nor will 
they suffer the existence in the hive of a queen-cell, even 
though capped. They seem to be satisfied, though they have 
very slight reason to be so. These fertile workers lay indif- 
ferently in large or small cells — often place several eggs in a 
single cell, and show their incapacity in various ways. 

The maxillae and labium of the worker bee are much 
elongated (Fig. 20). The maxillae (Fig. 20, A, mx, mx) are 
deeply grooved, and are hinged to the head by strong chitinous 
rods (Fig. 20, A, c, c, St, St) to which are attached the 
muscles which move these parts. The gutter-like extremities 
(Fig. 20, A, I, I) are stiffened with chitine, and when approx- 
imated form a tube which is continued by a membrane to the 
mouth opening of the pharynx, just between the bases of the 
jaws. This tube forms the largest channel through which 
nectar passes to the pharynx. The labium varies in length 
from .23 to .27 of an inch. By the sub-mentum (Fig. 20, 
A, o) and two chitinous rods (Fig. 20, A, b, b) it is hinged 
to the maxillae. The base or mentum (Fig. 20, A, m) is tubu- 
lar. The lower part of the tube is thick with chitine, the 
upper part membranous. This tube is the continuation of 
the pharynx into the tongue. From the mentum extend the 
tongue or ligula (Fig. 20, A, t), the paraglossaa (Fig. 20, A, 
p, p) whose sack-like bases connect with the tube of the 
mentum, and the labial palpi (Fig. 20, k, k), which in arrange- 
ment, form and function, resemble the maxillae. The tongue 
consists of an annulated sheath (Fig. 20, B and C, S) which 
is slitted along its under side to near the end.' This is very 
hairy. Within this is a tubular rod (Fig. 20, B and C, R) 
which is also slitted along its under surface. This extends 
beyond the sheath, where it becomes an imperfect funnel 
(Fig. 20,/). A thin, colorless membrane (Fig. 20, C, s, s) 



92 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



connects the slitted margins of the rod with those of the 
sheath. This with the sheath forms a sack which may be 
distended (Fig. 20, B) with nectar, as it has connection with 
the tube of the mentum, though it is closed anteriorly. The 
tubular rod connects with the sack and with the tube of the 
mentum at the base of the ligula. 

While the bee is sipping liquid food, the tongue alternately 
pushes out and draws back for a short distance, which motion 
is effected by muscles at its base. This may be analogous to 
swallowing. When not in use the tongue is partially drawn 
into the mentum, and with the labial palpi and maxillae is 
bent under the head. 

When bees can get at nectar in quantity, they suck it 
through the extemporized tubes formed by appromimating 
the maxillae and labial palpi. Deep down in flowers they 
only sip through the funnel and tubular rod. When a liquid 
is spread out. thin, I think they lap or wipe it up, when it 
passes through the slit into the tubular rod, and thence to 
the pharynx. 

The jaws (Fig. 21, c) are very strong, without the rudiment- 
ary tooth, while the cutting edge is semi-conical, so that when 

Fig. 21. 






a— Jaw of drone. 



b— Jaw of queen. 



c— Jaw of worker. 



the jaws are closed they form an imperfect cone. Thus these 
are well formed to cut comb, knead wax, and perform their 
various functions. Their eyes (Fig, 5) are like those of the 
queen, while their wings, like those of the drones, attain the 
end of the body. These organs (Fig. 3), as in all insects with 
rapid flight, are slim and strong, and, by their more or less 
rapid vibrations, give the variety of tone which characterizes 
their hum. Thus we have the rapid movements and high 
pitch of anger, and the slow motion and mellow note of con- 
tent and joy. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



93 



On the outside of the posterior tibia and basal tarsus is a 
cavity, made more deep by its rim of hairs, known as the pollen 
basket (Fig. 22, p). In these pollen baskets is compacted 
Fig. 22. Fig. 23. 









Part of Posterior Leg of Worker, much magnified. 



ft,— Rim of hairs, 
c— Claws. 



V— Pollen basket, 
e— Rows of hairs. 



ts— Joint of tarsi. 



the pollen, which is gathered by the mouth organs, and carried 
back by the four anterior legs. Opposite the pollen baskets 
are regular rows of golden hairs (Fig. 23, e), which probably 
aid in storing and compacting the pollen balls. 

On the anterior legs of the workers, between the femur and 
tibia, is a curious notch (Fig. 24, c) covered by a spur (Fig. 24, 
b). For several years this has caused speculation among my 
students, and has attracted the attention of observing apiarists. 
Some have supposed that it aided bees in reaching deeper 
down into tubular flowers, others that it was used in scraping 
off pollen, and still others that it enabled bees to hold on 
when clustering. The first two functions may belong to this, 
though other honey and pollen-gathering bees do not possess 



94 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

it. The latter function is performed by the claws at the end 
of the tarsi. 

The worker bees possess an organ of defense, which they 
are quick to use if occasion demands. This organ is straight, 
not curved, as is the sting of the queen. The poison, which 
is emitted in stinging and which causes the severe pain, is an 
acid fluid, which is secreted by a double gland, and stored in 
a muscular sack (Fig. 25, c), which is about the size of a flax- 
seed. This sack is connected by a tube (Fig. 25, m) with the 
reservoir of the sting. The sting is a triple organ consisting 
of three sharp hollow spears, which are very smooth and of 
exquisite polish. If we magnify the most beautifully 
wrought steel instrument, it looks rough and unfinished ; 
while the parts of the sting, however highly magnified, are 



Fig. 24. 




Anterior Leg of Worker, magnified. 

smooth and perfect. The true relation of the three parts of 
the sting was accurately described by Mr. J. R. Bledsoe, in 
the American Bee Journal, vol. 6, page 29. The action 
in stinging and the method of extruding the poison, is well 
described in a beautifully illustrated article, by Mr. J. D. 
Hyatt, in Vol. I, No. 1, of "American Quarterly Microscopi- 
cal Journal." The larger of the three awls (Fig. 25, a), 
usually, though incorrectly, styled the sheath, has a large 
cylindrical reservoir at its base (Fig. 25, s) which is entirely 
shut off from the hollow (Fig. 25, h) in the more slender part 
of the awl, which latter serves no purpose whatever, except 
to give strength and lightness. 

The reservoir connects at its base with the poison sack, and 
below, by a slit, with the opening (Fig. 25, n) made by the 
approximation of the three awls. The other two awls (Fig. 
25, B, b, b), which we will call lancets, are also hollow (Fig. 
25, i, i). They are barbed (Fig. 25, u, u, u) much like a 
fish-hook, except that there are eight or ten barbs, instead of 
one. Five of the barbs are large and strong. These barbs 
catch hold and cause the extraction of the sting when the 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



95 



organ is used. Near the base of each lancet is a beautiful 

valvular organ (Fig. 25, E, e). The hollow inside the lancets 

(Fig. 25, I, i), unlike that of the awl, is useful. It opens 

Fig. 25. 




Sting with Lancets drawn one side, cross-section of Sting, and a 
Lancet, much magnified. 



C— Poison sack. 

A— Awl. 

U, u— Barbs. 

i, i— Hollows in lancets. 

t'— Groove in lancet. 



M— Tube from sack to reservoir, s— Reservoir. 
b,b -Lancets. B, e— Valves, 

o, o— Openings from hollow in H— Hollow in awl. 
■ lancets. t,t— Ridges in awl. 



anteriorly in front of the first sis barbs (Fig. 25, 0, o), as 
shown by Mr. Hyatt, and posteriorly just back of the valves 
into the central tube (Fig. 25, n), and through it into the 
reservoir (Fig. 25, s). The poison then can pass either 
through the hollow lancets (Fig. 25, I, i) or through the cen- 
tral tube (Fig. 25, n), between the three spears. 

The lancets are held to the central piece by projections 
(Fig. 25, T, t) from the latter, which fit into corresponding 



96 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

grooves (Fig. 25, t') of the lancets. In the figure the lancets 
are moved one side to show the barbs and valves. Normally 
they are held close together, and thus form the tube (Fig. 25, n). 

The parts of the sting are moved by muscles connecting 
the bases of the parts and extending from the parts to the 
large chitinous supports (Fig. 25, d). The fact that muscles 
connect the various parts, and the muscular character of the 
sack, explain how a sting may act, even after the bee is 
apparently lifeless, or what is even more wonderful, after it 
has been extracted from the bee. The barbs hold one lancet 
as a fulcrum for the other, and so long as the muscles are 
excitable, so long is a thrust possible. Thus I have known 
a bee, dead for hours, to sting. A wasp, dead more than a 
day, with the abdomen cut off, made a painful thrust, and 
stings extracted for several minutes could still bring tears by 
their entering the flesh. In stinging, the awl first pierces, 
then the lancets follow. As the lancets push in, the valves 
close the central tube, when the poison is driven through the 
lancets themselves and comes out by the openings near the 
barbs (Fig. 25, o, o). The drop of poison which we see on 
the sting when the bee is slightly irritated, as by jarring the 
hive on a cold day, is pushed through the central opening 
by the muscular contraction of the sack attendant upon the 
elevation of the abdomen, and extrusion of the sting. 

The honey-stomach or crop in the workers (Fig. 9, 6) is well 
developed, though no larger than those of drones. Whether 
it is more complex in structure or not, I cannot state. 

The workers hatch from an impregnated egg, which can only 
come from a queen that has met a drone, and is always laid in 
the small, horizontal cell. These eggs are in no wise different, 
so far as we can see, from those which are laid in the drone or 
queen-cells. All are cylindrical and slighly curved (Fig. 26, 
b, c) and are fastened by one end to the bottom of the cell, 
and a little to one side of the centre. As already shown, 
these are voluntarily fertilized by the queen as she extrudes 
them, preparatory to fastening them in the cells. These eggs, 
though so small — one-sixteenth of an inch long — may be easily 
seen by holding the comb so that the light will shine into the 
cells. With experience, they are detected almost at once, but 
I have often found it quite difficult to make the novice see 
them, though very plainly visible to my experienced eye. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



97 



The egg hatches in three days. The larva (Fig. 26, d, e, f, 
</), incorrectly called grub, maggot — and even caterpillar, by 
Hunter — is white, footless, and lies coiled up in the cell till 
near maturity. It is fed a whitish fluid, though this seems to 
be given grudgingly, as it never seems to have more than it 

Fig. 26. 




ralHl 




4^m 

SPBR 



Egg and Br cod. 



b and c— Eggs. 

d, e, f and g— Various sizes of larvae. 

Ji— Pupa. 



■i— Pupa of queen, in queen-cell. 

k, fc— Caps. 



wishes to eat,- so it is fed quite frequently by the mature work- 
ers. It would seem that the workers fear an excessive devel- 
opment, which, as we have seen, is most mischievous and 
ruinous, and work to prevent the same, by a mean and meager 
diet. The food is composed of pollen and honey. Certainly 
of pollen, for, as I have repeatedly proved, without pollen, no 
brood will be reared. Probably some honey is incorporated, 
as sugar is an essential in the nutrition of all animals, and 
we could hardly account for the excessive amount of honey 
consumed, while breeding, by the extra amount consumed 
by the bees, consequent upon the added exercise required in 



98 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

caring for the brood. M. Quinby, Doolittle, and others, say 
water is also an element of this food. Bnt bees often breed 
very rapidly when they do not leave the hive at all, and so 
water, other than that contained in the honey, etc., cannot be 
added. This makes it a question if water is ever added. 
The time when bees seem to need water, and so repair 
to the rill and the pond, is during the heat of summer, when 
they are most busy. May this not be quaffed to slake their 
own thirst ? 

In six days the cell is capped over by the worker-bees. This 
cap is composed of pollen and wax, so it is darker, more 
porous, and more easily broken than the caps of the honey- 
cells ; it is also more convex (Fig. 26, k). The larva, 
now full grown, having lapped up all the food placed before 
it, surrounds itself with a silken cocoon, so excessively thin 
that it requires a great number to appreciably reduce the size 
of the cells. These always remain in the cell, after the bees 
escape, and give to old comb its dark color and great strength. 
Yet they are so thin, that cells used even for a dozen years, 
seem to serve as well for brood as when first used. In three 
days the insect assumes the pupa state (Fig. 26, h). In all 
insects the spinning of the cocoon seems an exhaustive pro- 
cess, for so far as I have observed, and that is quite at length, 
this act is succeeded by a variable period of repose. The 
pupa is also called a nymph. By cutting open cells it is easy 
to determine just the date of forming the cocoon, and of 
changing to the pupa state. The pupa looks like the mature 
bee with all its appendages bound close about it, though the 
color is still whitish. 

In twenty-one days the bee emerges from the cell. The 
old writers were quite mistaken in thinking that the advent of 
these was an occasion of joy and excitement among the bees. 
All apiarists have noticed how utterly unmoved the bees are, 
as they push over and crowd by these new-comers in the most 
heedless and discourteous manner imaginable. Wildman tells 
of seeing the workers gathering pollen and honey the same 
day that they came forth from the cells. This idea is quickly 
disproved if we Italianize black-bees. We know that for 
some days these young bees do not leave the hive at all, 
except in case of swarming, when bees even too young to fly 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 99 

will essay to go with the crowd. These young bees, like the 
young drones and queens, are much lighter- for the first few 
days. 

The worker-bees never attain a great age. Those reared in 
autumn may live for eight or nine months, and if in queenless 
stocks, where little labor is performed, even longer ; while 
those reared in spring will wear out in three, and when most 
busy, will often die in from thirty to forty-five days. None 
of these bees survive the year through, so there is a limit to 
the number which may exist in a colony. As a good queen 
will lay, when in her best estate, three thousand eggs daily, 
and as the workers live from one to three months, it might 
seem that forty thousand was too small a figure for the num- 
ber of workers. Without doubt a greater number is possible. 
That it is rare is not surprising, when we remember the 
numerous accidents and vicissitudes that must ever attend 
the individuals of these populous communities. 

The function of the worker-bees is to do all the manual 
labor of the hives. They secrete the wax, which forms in 
small pellets (Fig. 27, a, a) under the over-lapping rings under 
the abdomen. I have found these wax-scales on both old and 
young. According to Fritz Miiller, the admirable German 
observer, so long a traveler in South America, the bees of the 
genus melipona secrete the wax on the back. 

The young bees build the comb, ventilate the hive, 
feed the larvae and cap the cells. The older bees — for, as 
readily seen in Italianizing, the young bees do not go forth 
for the first one or two weeks — gather the honey, collect the 
pollen, or bee-bread, as it is generally called, bring in the 
propolis or bee glue, which is used to close openings, and as a 
cement, supply the hive with water (?), defend the hive from all 
improper intrusion, destroy drones when their day of grace is 
past, kill and arrange for replacing worthless queens, destroy 
inchoate queens, drones, or even workers, if circumstances 
demand it, and lead forth a portion of the bees when the con- 
ditions impel them to swarm. 

When there are no young bees, theold bees will act as house- 
keepers and nurses, which they otherwise refuse to do. The 
young bees, on the other hand, will not go forth to glean, 
even though there be no old bees to do this necessary part of 



100 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



bee-duties. An indirect function of all the bees is to supply 
animal heat, as the very life of the bees require that the 
temperature inside the hive be maintained at a rate consid- 
erably above freezing. In the chemical processes attendant 
upon nutrition, much heat is generated, which, as first shown 
by Newport, may be considerably augmented at the pleasure 
of the bees, by forced respiration. The bees, too, by a rapid 
vibration of their wings, have the power to ventilate their 
hives, and thus reduce the temperature, when the weather is 
hot. Thus they moderate the heat of summer, and temper 
the cold of winter. 




Under Surface of Bee, showing Wax between Segments* 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 101 



CHAPTER III. 

SWARMING OR NATURAL METHOD OF INCREASE. 

The natural method by which an increase of colonies 
among bees is secured, is of great interest, and though it has 
been closely observed, and assiduously studied for a long 
period, and has given rise to theories as often absurd as 
sound, yet, even now, it is a fertile field for investiga- 
tion, and will repay any who may come with the true spirit 
of inquiry; for there is much concerning it which is involved 
in mystery. Why do bees swarm at unseemly times ? Why 
is the swarming spirit so excessive at times and so restrained 
at other seasons? These and other questions we are too apt 
to refer to erratic tendencies of the bees, when there is no 
question but that they follow naturally upon certain condi- 
tions, perhaps intricate and obscure, which it is the province 
of the investigator to discover. Who shall be first to unfold 
the principles which govern these, as all other actions of the 
bees ? 

In the spring or early summer, when the hive has become 
populous, and storing very active, the queen, as if conscious 
that a home could be overcrowded, and foreseeing such dan- 
ger, commences to deposit drone-eggs in drone-cells, which 
the worker-bees, perhaps moved by like considerations, begin 
to construct, if they are not already in existence. In fact, 
drone comb is almost sure of construction at such times. No 
sooner is the drone brood well under way, than the large, 
awkward, queen-cells are commenced, often to the number of 
ten or fifteen, though there may be not more than three or 
four. In these, eggs are placed, and the rich royal jelly added, 
and soon, often before the cells are even capped — and very 
rarely before a cell is built, if the bees are crowded, the 
hives unshaded, the ventilation insufficient, or the honey-yield 
very bountiful — some bright day, usually about ten o'clock, 
after an unusual disquiet both inside and outside the hive, a 



102 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

large part of the worker-bees — being off duty for the day, and 
having previously loaded their honey-sacks — rush forth from 
the hive as if alarmed by the cry of fire, the queen among 
the number, though she is by no means among the first, and 
frequently is quite late in her exit. The bees, thus started on 
their quest for a new home, after many uproarious gyrations 
about the old one, dart forth to alight upon some bush, limb 7 
or fence, though in one case I have known the first swarm of 
bees to leave at once, for parts unknown, without even waiting 
to cluster. After thus meditating for the space of from one 
to three hours, upon a future course, they again take wing and 
leave for their new home, which they have probably already 
sought out. 

Some suppose the bees look up a home before leaving the 
hive, while others claim that scouts are in search of one 
while the bees are clustered. The fact that bees take a right- 
line to their new home, and fly too rapidly to look as they go, 
would argue that a home is preempted, at least, before the 
cluster is dissolved. The fact that the cluster remains some- 
times for hours — even over night — and at other times for a 
brief period, would lead us to infer that the bees cluster, in 
waiting for a new home to be found. Yet, wiry do bees some- 
times alight after flying a long distance, as did a first swarm 
the past season, upon our College grounds ? Was their 
journey long, so that they must needs stop to rest, or were 
they flying at random, not knowing whither they were going ? 

If for any reason the queen should fail to join the bees, 
and perhaps rarely, when she is among them, they will, after 
having clustered, return to their old home. The youngest 
bees will remain in the old hive, to which those bees, if there 
are any such, which are abroad in quest of stores will return. 
The presence of young bees on the ground — those with flight 
too feeble to join the rovers — will always mark the previous 
home of the emigrants. Soon, in seven or eight days, perhaps 
rarely a little later, the first queen will come forth from her 
cell, and in two or three days she will or may lead a new 
colony forth, but before she does this, the peculiar note, known 
as the piping of the queen, may be heard. This piping 
sounds like peep, peep, is shrill and clear, and can be 
plainly heard by placing the ear to the hive, nor would it be 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 103 

mistaken. It is followed by a lower, hoarser note, made by 
a queen still within the cell. 

Some have supposed that the cry of the liberated queen 
was that of hate, while that by the queen still imprisoned 
was either of enmity or fear. Never will an after-swarm 
leave, unless preceded by this peculiar note. 

At successive periods of one or two days, one, two, or even 
three more colonies may issue from the old home. These last 
swarms will all be heralded by the piping of the queen. 
They will be less particular as to the time of day when they 
issue, as they have been known to leave before sun-rise, and 
even after sun-set. The well-known apiarist, Mr. A. F. 
Moon, once knew a swarm to issue by moon-light. ' They will, 
too, as a rule, cluster farther from the hive. The after 
swarms are preceded by the queen, and in case swarming is 
delayed, may be attended by a plurality of queens. Berlej)sch 
and Langstroth both saw eight queens issue with a swarm, 
while others report even more. These virgin queens fly very 
rapidly, so the swarm will seem more active and definite in 
their course than will first swarms. 

The cutting short of swarming preparations before the 
second, third, or even the first swarm issues, is by no means 
a rare occurrence. .This is effected by the bees' destroying the 
queen-cells, and sometimes by a general extermination of the 
drones, and is generally to be explained by a cessation of the 
honey yield. Cells thus destroyed are easily recognized, as 
they are torn open from the side, and not cut back from the 
end. 

Swarming out at other times, especially in late winter and 
spring, is sometimes noticed by apiarists. This is due to 
famine, mice, or some other disturbing circumstance, which 
makes the hive intolerable to the bees. 



104 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



CHAPTER IV. 

PRODUCTS OF BEES ; THEIR, ORIGIN AND 
FUNCTION. 

Among all insects, bees stand first in the variety of the 
useful products which they give us ; and next to the silk- 
moths in the importance of these products. They seem 
the more remarkable and important, in that so few insects 
yield articles of commercial value. True, the cochineal 
insect, a species of bark-louse, gives us an important 
coloring material ; the lac insect, of the same family, gives 
us the important element of our best glue — -shellac ; the . 
blister-beetles afford an article prized by the physician, while 
we are indebted to one of the gall-flies for a valuable element 
of ink. But the honey-bee affords not only a delicious article 
of food, but also another article of no mean commercial rank 
— namely, wax. We will proceed to examine the various pro- 
ducts which come from bees. 

HONEY. 

Of course the first product of bees, not only to attract 
attention, but also in importance, is honey. And what is 
honey ? "We can only say that it is a sweet substance 
gathered from flowers and other sources, by the bees. We 
cannot, therefore, give its chemical composition, which would 
be as varied as the sources from which it comes. We cannot 
even call it a sugar, for it may be, and always is composed of 
various sugars, and thus it is easy to understand why honey 
varies so much in richness, color, flavor, and effects on diges- 
tion. In fact, it is very doubtful if honey is a manufactured 
article at all. It seems most likely that the bees only collect 
it as it is distilled by myriad leaves and flowers, and store it 
up, that it may minister to their and our necessities. To be 
sure, some writers contend that it undergoes some change 
while in the bee's stomach ; but the rapidity with which they 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 105 

gtore, and the seeming entire similarity between honey and 
sugar fed to them, and the same immediately extracted from 
the comb, has led me to believe that the transforming power 
of the stomach is very slight, if, indeed, it exists at all. To 
be sure, I have fed sugar, giving bees empty combs at night- 
fall, and found the flavor of honey early the next morning. 
In this case, honey might have been already in the bees' 
stomachs, or might have been carried from other portions of 
the hive. The method of collecting the honey has already 
been described. The principles of lapping and suction are 
both involved in the operation. 

When the stomach is full, the bee repairs to the hive, and 
regurgitates its precious load, either giving it to the bees or 
storing it in the cells. Mr. Doolittle claims that the bees 
that gather, give all their honey to the other bees, which 
latter store it in the cells. This honey remains for some 
time uncapped that it may ripen, by which process the 
water is partially evaporated, and the honey rendered thicker. 
If the honey remains uncapped, or is removed from the cells, 
it will generally granulate, if the temperature be reduced 
below 70°. This is probably owing to the presence of the 
cane-sugar, and is a good indication, as it denotes superior 
quality. Some honey, as that from the South, and some-- 
from California, seems to remain liquid indefinitely. Some 
kinds of our own honey crystallize much more readily than 
others. But that granulation is a test that honey is pure, is 
untrue ; that it is a sign of superior excellence, I think quite 
probable. 

When there are no flowers, or when the flowers yield no 
sweets, the bees, ever desirous to add to their stores, frequently 
essay to rob other colonies, and often visit the refuse of cider 
mills, or suck up the oozing sweets of various plant or bark 
lice, thus adding, may be, unwholesome food to their usually 
delicious and refined stores. It is a curious fact that the 
queen never lays her maximum number of eggs except when 
storing is going on. In fact, in the interims of honey-gather- 
ing, egg-laying not infrequently ceases altogether. The queen 
seems discreet, gauging the size of her family by the probable 
means of support. 

Again, in times of extraordinary yields of honey, the storing 



106 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



is so rapid that the hive becomes so filled that the queen is 
unable to lay her full quota of eggs ; in fact, I have seen the 
brood very much reduced in this way, which, of course, greatly 
depleted the colony. This might be called ruinous prosperity. 
The natural use of the honey is to furnish the mature bees 
with food, and when mixed with pollen, to form the diet of 
the young bees. 

WAX. 

• The product of the bees, second in importance, is wax. 
This is a solid, unctious substance, and is, as shown by its 
chemical composition, a fat-like material, though not as some 
authors assert, the fat of bees. As already observed, this is 
a secretion formed in pellets, the shape of an irregular pentagon 

Fig. 27. 





Under-side Abdomen, magnified. 

a, a, etc.— Wax pellets. 



Wax-Scales in situ, magnified. 

w— Wax-scale. 



(Fig. 27, «?), underneath the abdomen. These pellets are light- 
colored, very thin and fragile, and are secreted by and molded 
upon the membrane towards the body from the wax-pockets. 
Neighbour speaks of the wax oozing through pores from the 
stomach. This is not the case, but, as with the synovial fluid 
about our own joints, is formed by the secreting membrane, 
and does not pass through holes, as water through a sieve. 
There are four of these wax-pockets on each side, and thus 
there may be eight wax-scales on a bee at one time. This 
wax can be secreted by the bees, when fed on pure sugar, as 
shown by Huber, which experiment I have verified. I 
removed all honey and comb from my observing-hive, left the 
bees for twenty-four hours to digest all food which might be 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 107 

in their stomachs, then fed pure sugar, which was better than 
honey, as Prof. K F. Kedzie has shown by analysis that not 
only filtered honey, but even the nectar which he collected 
right from the flowers themselves, contains nitrogen. The 
bees commenced at once to build comb, and continued for several 
days, so long as I kept them confined. This is, as we should 
suppose ; sugar contains hydrogen and oxygen in proportion to 
form water, while the third element, carbon, is in the same or 
about the same proportion as the oxygen. Now, the fats 
usually contain little oxygen, and a good deal of carbon and 
hydrogen. Thus, the sugar by losing some of its oxygen 
would contain the requisite elements for fat. It was found 
true in the days of slavery in the South, that the negroes of 
Louisiana, during the gathering of the cane, would become 
very fat. They ate much sugar ; they gained much fat. Now, 
wax is a fat-like substance, not that it is the animal fat of 
bees, as often asserted — in fact it contains much less hydrogen, 
as will be seen by the following formula from Hess : . 

Oxygen 7.50 

Carbon 79.30 

Hydrogen 13.20 

— but it is a special secretion for a special purpose, and from 
its composition, we should conclude that it might be secreted 
from a purely saccharine diet, and experiment confirms the 
conclusion. It has been found that bees require about twenty 
pounds of honey to secrete one of wax. 

That nitrogenous food is necessary, as claimed by Langs- 
troth and Neighbour, is not true. Yet, in the active season, 
when muscular exertion is great, nitrogenous food must be 
imperatively necessary to supply the waste, and give tone to 
the body. Some may be desirable even in the quiet of win- 
ter. Now, as secretion of wax demands a healthy condition 
of the bee, it indirectly requires some nitrogenous food. 

It is assei'ted, that to secrete wax, bees need to hang in 
compact clusters or festoons, in absolute repose. Such. quiet 
would certainly seem conducive to most active secretion. The 
same food could not go to form wax, and at the same time 
supply the waste of tissue which ever follows upon muscular 
activity. The cow, put to hard toil, could not give so much 
milk. But I find, upon examination, that the bees, even the 
most aged, while' gathering in the honey season, yield up the 



108 M AN UAL OF THE APIARY. 

wax-scales, the same as those within the hive. During the 
active storing of the past season, especially when comb- 
building was in rapid progress, I found that nearly every bee 
taken from the flowers contained the wax-scales of varying 
sizes in the wax-pockets. By the activity of the bees, these 
are not infrequently loosed from their position, and fall to the 
bottom of the hive. 

It is probable that wax secretion is not forced upon the 
bees, but only takes place as required. So the bees, unless 
wax is demanded, may perform other duties. Whether this 
secretion is a matter of the bee's will, or whether it is excited 
by the surrounding conditions without any thought, are ques- 
tions yet to be settled. 

These wax-scales are loosened by the claws, and carried to 
the mouth by the anterior legs, where they are mixed with 
saliva, and after the proper kneading by the jaws, in which 
process it assumes a bright yellow hue — but loses none of its 
translucency — it is formed into that wonderful and exquisite 
structure, the comb. ■ 

Honey-comb is wonderfully delicate, the wall of a new cell 
being only about 1-180 of an inch in thickness, and so formed 
as to combine the greatest strength with the least expense of 
material and room. It has been a subject of admiration since 
the earliest time. That the form is a matter of necessity, as 
some claim — the result of pressure — and not of bee-skill, is 
not true. The hexagonal form is assumed at the very start 
of the cells, when there can be no pressure.. The wasp builds 
the same form, though unaided. The assertion that the cells, 
even the drone and worker-cells, are absolutely uniform and 
perfect, is also untrue, as a little inspection will convince any 
one. The late Prof. Wyman proved that an exact hexagonal 
cell does not exist. He showed that the size varies ; so that 
in a distance of ten worker-cells, there may be a variation of 
one diameter. And this in natural, not distorted cells. This 
variation of one-fifth of an inch in ten cells is extreme, but 
a variation of one-tenth of an inch is common. ' The sides, 
as also the angles, are not constant. The rhombic faces- 
forming ^he bases of the cells also vary. 

The bees change from worker (Fig. 28, c) to drone-cells 
(Fig. 28, a), which are one-fifth larger, and vice versa, not 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



109 



by any system (Fig. 28, b), but simply by enlarging or con- 
tracting. It usually takes about four rows to complete the 
transformation, though the number of deformed cells varies 
from two to eight. 

The structure of each cell is quite complex, yet full of 
interest. The base is a triangular pyramid (Fig. 28, e) whose 

Fig. 28. 





Rhombs, Pyramidal Bases, 
and Cross-sections of Cells 
illustrated. 



HP ■ 41S 






-Drone-cells. 
-Deformed cells. 



Honey-Comb. 



c— Worker-cells. 
d d— Queen-cells. 



three faces are rhombs, and whose apex forms the very centre 
of the floor of the cell. From the six free or non-adjacent 
edges of the three rhombs extend the lateral walls or faces of 
the cell. The apex of this basal pyramid is a point where 
the contiguous faces of three cells on the opposite side meet, 
and form the angles of the bases of three cells on the oppo- 



110 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

site side of the comb. Thus, the base of each cell forms 
one-third of the base of each of three opposite cells. One 
side thus braces the other, and adds much to the strength of 
the comb. Each cell, then, is in form of a hexagonal prism, 
terminating in a flattened triangular pyramid. 

The bees usually build several combs at once, and carry 
forward several cells on each side of each comb, constantly 
adding to the number, by additions to the edge. Huber first 
observed the process of comb-building, noticing the bees 
abstract the wax-scales, carry them to the mouth, add the 
frothy saliva, and then knead and draw out the yellow ribbons 
which were fastened to the top of the hive, or added to the 
comb already commenced. 

The diameter of the worker-cells (Fig. 28, c) averages little 
more than one-fifth of an inch — Reaumur says two and 
three-fifths lines or twelfths of an inch. While the drone- 
cells (Fig. 28, a) are a little more than one-fourth of an inch, 
or, according to Reaumur, three and one-third lines. Rut 
this distinguished author was quite wrong when he said : 
" These are the invariable dimensions of all cells that ever 
were or ever will be made." The depth of the worker-cells 
is a little less than half an inch ; the drone-cells are slightly 
extended so as to be a little more than half an inch deep. 
These cells are often drawn out so as to be an inch long, when 
used solely as honey receptacles. The capping of the brood- 
cells is dark, porous, and convex, while that of the honey is 
white and concave. 

The character of the cells, as to size, that is whether they 
are drone or worker, seems to be determined by the relative 
abundance of bees and honey. If the bees are abundant 
and honey needed, or if there is no queen to lay eggs, drone- 
comb (Fig. 28, a) is invariably built, while if there are few 
bees, and of course little honey needed, then worker-comb 
(Fig. 28, c) is almost as invariably formed. 

All comb when first formed is clear and transparent. The 
fact that it is often dark and opaque implies that it has been 
long used as brood-comb, and the opacity is due to the 
innumerable thin cocoons which line the cells. These may 
be separated by dissolving the wax ; which may be done by 
putting it in boiling alcohol. Such comb need not be dis- 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. Ill 

carded, for if composed of worke-r-cells, it is still very valuable 
for breeding purposes, and should not be destroyed till the 
cells are too small for longer service, which will not occur till 
after many years of use. The function, then, of the wax, is 
to make comb, and caps for the honey-cells, and, combined 
with pollen, to form queen-cells (Fig. 28, d) and caps for the 
brood-cells. (See Appendix, page 301). 

POLLEN, OR BEE-BREAD. 

An ancient Greek author states that in Hymettus the bees 
tied little pebbles to their legs to hold them down. This 
fanciful conjecture probably arose from seeing the pollen balls 
on the bees' legs. 

Even such scientists as Reaumur, Bonnet, Swammerdam, 
and many apiarists of the last century, thought they saw in 
these pollen-balls the source of wax. But Huber, John 
Hunter, Duchet, Wildman, and others, noticed the presence 
and function of the wax-pellets already described, and were 
aware that the pollen served a different purpose. 

This substance, like honey, is not secreted, nor manufac- 
tured by the bees, only collected. The bees usually obtain 
it from the stamens of flowers. But if they gain access to 
flour when there is no bloom, they will take this in lieu of 
pollen, in which case the former term used above becomes a 
misnomer, though usually the bee-bread consists almost 
wholly of pollen. 

As already intimated, the pollen is conveyed in the pollen- 
baskets (Fig. 22, p) of the posterior legs, to which it is con- 
veyed by the other legs, and compressed into little oval 
masses. The motions in this conveyance are exceedingly 
rapid. The bees not infrequently come to the hives, not only 
with replete pollen-baskets, but with their whole under surface 
thoroughly dusted. Dissection will also show that the san:3 
bee may have her sucking stomach distended with honey. 
Thus the bees make the most of their opportunities, r It is a 
curious fact, noticed even by Aristotle, that the bees," during 
any trip, gather only a single kind of pollen, or only gather 
from one species of bloom. Hence, while different bees may 
have different colors of pollen, the pellets of bee-bread on 
any single bee will be uniform in color throughout. It is 



112 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

possible that the material is more easily collected and com- 
pacted when homogeneous. 

The pollen is usually deposited in the small or worker cells, 
and is unloaded by a scraping motion of the posterior legs, 
the pollen baskets being first lowered into the cells. The bee 
thus freed, leaves the wheat-like masses thus deposited to be 
packed by other bees. The cells, which may or may not have 
the same color of pollen throughout, are never filled quite to 
the top, and not infrequently the same cell may contain both 
pollen and honey. Such a condition is easily ascertained by 
holding the comb between the eye and the sun. If there is 
no pollen it will be Wholly translucent ; otherwise there will 
be opaque patches. A little experience will make this deter- 
mination easy, even if the comb is old. It is often stated 
that queenless colonies gather no pollen, but this is not true, 
though very likely they gather less than they otherwise would. 
It is probable that pollen, at least when honey is added, con- 
tains all the essential elements of animal food. It certainly 
contains the very important principle, which is not found in 
honey — nitrogenous material. 

The function of bee-bread is to help furnish the brood with 
proper food. In fact, brood-rearing would be impossible 
without it. And though it is certainly not essential to the 
nourishment of the bees when in repose, it still may be so, 
and unquestionably is, in time of active labor. 

PROPOLIS. 

This substance, also called bee-glue, is collected as the bees 
collect pollen, and not made nor secreted. It is the product 
of various resinous buds, and may be seen to glisten on the 
opening buds of the hickory and horse-chestnut, where it 
frequently serves the entomologist by capturing small insects. 
From such sources, from the oozing gum of various trees, 
from varnished furniture, and from old propolis about unused 
hives, that have previously seen service, do the bees secure 
their glue. Probably the gathering of bees about coffins to 
collect their glue from the varnish, led to the custom of rap- 
ping on the hives to inform the bees, in case of a death in 
the family, that they might join as mourners. This custom 
still prevails, as I understand, in some parts of the South. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 113 

This substance has great adhesive force, and though soft and 
pliable when warm, becomes very hard and unyielding when 
cold. 

The use of this substance is to cement the combs to their 
supports, to fill up all rough places inside the hive, to seal up 
all crevices except the place of exit, which they often con- 
tract, and even to cover any foreign substance that cannot be 
removed. Intruding snails have thus been imprisoned inside 
the hive. Keaumur found a snail thus encased ; Maraldi, a 
slug similarly entombed ; while I have myself observed a 
bombus, which had been stripped by the bees of wings, hair, 
etc., in their vain attempts at removal, also encased in this 
unique style of a sarcophagus, fashioned by the bees. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

For those who wish to pursue these interesting subjects 
more at length, I would recommend the following authors as 
specially desirable : Kirby and Spence, Introduction to En- 
tomology ; Duncan's Transformations of Insects ; Packard's 
Guide to the Study of Insects (American) ; F. Huber's New 
Observations on the Natural History of Bees ; Bevan on the 
Honey Bee ; Langstroth on the Honey Bee (American) ; 
Neighbour on The Apiary. 

I have often been asked to recommend such treatises, and 
I heartily commend all of the above. The first and fourth 
are now out of print, but can be had by leaving orders at 
second-hand book-stores. 



IF-A-HT SECOITD. 

THE -APIARY; 

Its Care and Management. 
Motto: — "Keep all Colonies Strong!" 



INTRODUCTION TO PART II. 



STARTING AN APIARY. 

In apiculture, as in all other pursuits, it is all-important 
to make a good beginning. This demands preparation on the 
part of the apiarist, procuring of bees, and location of his 
apiary. 

PREPARATION. 

Before starting in the business, the prospective bee-keeper 
should inform himself in the art. 

READ A GOOD MANUAL. 

To do this, he should procure some good manual, and 
thoroughly study, especially the practical part of the business ; 
and if accustomed to read, think and study, should carefully 
read the whole work. Otherwise, he will avoid confusion by 
only studying the methods of pi'actice, leaving the principles 
and science, to strengthen, and be strengthened by, his expe- 
rience. Unless a student, he had better not take a journal 
till he begins the actual work, as so much unclassified informa- 
tion, without any experience to correct, arrange, and select, 
will but mystify. For the same reason, he may well be con- 
tent with reading a single work, till experience, and a 
thorough study of this one, makes him more able to discrim- 
inate ; and the same reasoning will preclude his taking more 
than one bee-periodical, until he has had at least a year's 
actual experience. 

VISIT SOME APIARIST. 

In this work of self-preparation, he will find great aid in 
visiting the nearest successful and intelligent apiarist. If 
successful, such an one will have a reputation ; if intelligent, 
he will take the journals, and will show by his conversation 
that he knows of the methods and views of his brother 
apiarists, and above all, he will not think he knows it all, 
and that his is the only way to success. Learn all you can 



118 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

of such an one, but always let your own judgment and com- 
mon sense sit as umpire, that you make no plans or decisions 
that your judgment does not fully sustain. 

TAKE A COLLEGE COURSE. 

It will he most wise to take a course in some College, if 
this is practicable, where apiculture is thoroughly discussed. 
Here you will not only get the best training as to your chosen 
"business, as you will study, see and handle, and thus will 
have the very best aids to decide as to methods, system and 
apparatus, but will also receive that general culture, which 
will greatly enhance life's pleasures and usefulness, and which 
ever proves the best capital in any vocation. 

DECIDE ON A PLAN. 

After such a course as suggested above, it will be easy to 
decide as to location, hives, style of honey to raise, and gen- 
eral system of management. But here, as in all the arts, all 
our work should be preceded by a well-digested plan of 
operations. As with the farmer and gardener, only he who 
works to a plan can hope for the best success. Of course, 
such plans will vary as we grow in wisdom and experience. 
A good maxim to govern all plans is, "go slow." A good 
rule, which will insure the above, "Pay as you go." Make 
the apiary pay for all improvements in advance. Demand 
that each year's credits exceed its debits ; and that you may 
surely accomplish this, keep an accurate account of all your 
receipts and expenses. This will be a great aid in arranging 
the plans for each successive year's operations. 

Above all, avoid hobbies, and be slow to adopt sweeping 
changes. " Prove all things, and hold fast that which is 
good." 

HOW TO PROCURE OUR FIRST COLONIES. 

To procure colonies from which to form an apiary, it is 
always best to get them near at hand. We thus avoid, the 
shock of transportation, can see the bees before we purchase, 
and in case there is any seeming mistake, can easily gain a 
personal explanation, and secure a speedy adjustment of any 
real wrong;. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 119 

KIND OP BEES TO PURCHASE. 

At the same price always take Italians, as undoutedly they 
are best. If black bees can be secured for three, or even for 
two dollars less per colony, by all means take them, as they 
can be Italianized at a profit for the difference in cost, and, 
in the operation, the young apiarist will gain valuable 
experience. 

Our motto, too, will demand that we only purchase strong 
colonies. If, as recommended, the purchaser sees the colo- 
nies before the bargain is closed, it will be easy to know that 
the colonies are strong. If the bees, as . they come rushing 
out, remind you of Vesuvius at her best, or bring to mind 
the gush and rush at the nozzle of the fireman's hose, then 
buy. In the hives of such colonies, all combs will be covered 
with bees, and in the honey season, brood will be abundant. 

IN WHAT KIND OF HIVES. 

As plans are already made, of course it is settled as to the 
style of hive to be used. Now, if bees can be procured in 
such hives, they will be worth just as much more than though 
in any other hive, as it costs to make the hive and transfer 
the bees. This will be certainly as much as three dollars. 
JYb apiarist will tolerate, unless for experiment, two styles 
of hives in his apiary. Therefore, unless you find bees in 
such hives as you are to use, it will be best to buy them in 
box hives and transfer (see Chapter VII.) to your own hives, 
as such bees can always be bought at reduced rates. In case 
the person from whom you purchase will take the hives back 
at a fair rate, after you have transferred the bees to your own 
hives, then purchase in any style of movable comb hive, as it 
is easier to transfer from a movable comb hive, than from a 
box hive. 

WHEN TO PURCHASE. 

It is safe to purchase any time in the summer. In April 
or May — of course you only purchase strong stocks — if in 
the latitude of New York or Chicago — it will be earlier 
further souths— you can afford to pay more, as you will secure 
the increase both of honey and bees. If you desire to pur- 
chase in autumn, that you may gain by the experience of 



120 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

wintering, either demand that the one of whom you purchase 
insure the safe wintering of the bees, or else that he reduce 
the selling price, at least one-third, from his rates the next 
April. Otherwise the novice had better wait and purchase in 
spring. If you are to transfer at once, it is almost imperative 
that you buy in spring, as it is vexatious, especially for the 
novice, to transfer when the hives are crowded with brood and 
honey. 

HOW MUCH TO PAY. 

Of course the market, which will ever be governed by 
supply and demand, must guide you. But to aid you, I will 
append what at present would be a reasonable schedule of 
prices almost anywhere in the United States : For box hives, 
crowded with black bees — Italians would rarely be found in 
such hives — five dollars per colony is a fair price. For black 
bees in hives such as you desire to use, eight dollars would 
be reasonable. For pure Italians in such hives, ten dollars 
is not too much. 

If the person of whom you purchase will take back the 
movable hives after you transfer the bees, you can afford to 
pay five dollars for black bees, and seven dollars for pure 
Italians. If you purchase in the fall, require 33-J per cent, 
discount on these rates. 

WHERE TO LOCATE. 

If apiculture is an avocation, then your location will be 
fixed by your principal business or profession. And here I 
may state, that if we may judge from reports which come from 
nearly every section of the United States, from Maine to 
Texas, and from Florida to Oregon, you can hardly* go amiss 
anywhere in our goodly land. 

If you are to engage as a specialist, then you can select 
first with reference to society and climate, after which it will 
be well to secure a succession of natural honey-plants (Chap. 
XVI.), by virtue of your locality. It will also be well to look 
for reasonable prospects of a good home market, as good home 
markets are, and must ever be, the most desirable. It will be 
desirable, too, that your neighborhood is not overstocked with 
bees. It is a well-established fact, that apiarists with few 
colonies receive relatively larger profits than those with large 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 121 

apiaries. While this may be owing in part to better care, 
much doubtless depends on the fact that there is not an undue 
proportion of bees to the number of honey-plants, and conse- 
quent secretion of nectar. To have the undisputed monopoly 
of an area reaching at least four miles in every direction from 
your apiary, is unquestionably a great advantage. 

If you desire to begin two kinds of business, so that your 
dangers from possible misfortune may be lessened, then a 
small farm— especially a fruit farm — in some locality where 
fruit-raising is successfully practiced, will be very desirable. 
You thus add others of the luxuries of life to the products 
of your business, and at the same time may create additional 
pasturage for your bees by simply attending to your other 
business. In this case, your location becomes a more complex 
matter, and will demand still greater thought and attention. 
Some of Michigan's most successful apiarists are also noted 
as successful pomologists. 

For position and arrangement of apiary see Chapter VI. 



122 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



CHAPTER V. 

HIVES AND BOXES 

An early choice among the innumerable hives is of course 
demanded ; and here let me state with emphasis, that none 
of the standard hives are now covered by patents, so let 
no one buy rights. Success by the skillful apiarist with 
almost any hive is possible. Yet, without question, some 
hives are far superior to others, and for certain uses, and with 
certain persons, some hives are far preferable to others, though 
all may be meritorious. As a change in hives, after one is 
once engaged in apiculture, involves much time, labor and 
expense, this becomes an important question, and one worthy 
earnest consideration by the prospective apiarist. I shall give 
it a first place, and a thorough consideration, in this discussion 
of practical apiculture. 

BOX-HIVES. 

I feel free to say that no person who reads, thinks, and 
studies — and success in apiculture can be promised to no 
other — will ever be content to use the old box-hives. In fact, 
thought and intelligence, which imply an eagerness to investi- 
gate, are essential elements in the apiarist's character. And 
to such an one a box-hive would be valued just in propor- 
tion to the- amount of kindling-wood it contained. A very 
serious fault with one of our principal bee-books, which 
otherwise is mainly excellent in subject matter and treatment, 
is the fact that it presumes its readers to be box-hive men. 
As well make emperors, kings, and chivalry the basis of good 
government, in an essay written for American readers. I 
shall entirely ignore box-hives in the following discussions, 
for I believe no sensible, intelligent apiarists, such as read 
books, will tolerate them, and that, supposing they would, it 
would be an expensive mistake, which I have no right to 
encourage, in fact, am bound to discourage, not only for the 
benefit of individuals, but also for the art itself. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 123 

To be sure of success, the apiarist must be able to inspect 
the whole interior of the hive at his pleasure, must be able 
to exchange combs from one hive to another, to regulate the 
movements of the bees : by destroying queen-cells, by giving 
or withholding drone-comb, by extracting the honey, by intro- 
ducing queens, and by many other manipulations to be 
explained, which are only practicable with a movable-frame 
hive. 

MOVABLE-COMB HIVES. 

There are, at present, two types of the movable-comb hive 
in use among us, each of which is unquestionably valuable, 
as each has advocates among our most intelligent, successful 
and extensive apiarists. Each, too, has been superseded by 
the other, to the satisfaction of the person making the change. 
The kind most used consists of a box, in which hang the 
frames which hold the combs. The adjacent frames are so far 
separated that the combs, which just fill them, shall be the 
proper distance apart. In the other kind, the frames are 
wider than the comb, and when in position are close together, 
and of themselves form two sides of a box. When in use, 
these frames are surrounded by a second box, without a bot- 
tom, which, with them, rests on a bottom board. Each of 
these kinds is represented by various forms, sizes, etc., where 
the details are varied to suit the apiarist's notion. Yet, I 
believe that all hives in present use, worthy of recommenda- 
tion, fall within one or the other of the above named types. 

THE LANGSTROTH HIVE. 

This (Fig. 29) is the hive most in use among Americans 
and Britons, if not among all who practice improved apicul- 
ture. It is stated that the late Major Munn was first to invent 
this style of hive. He states (see Bevan, p. 37) that he first 
used it in 1834. But, as suggested by Neighbour in his 
valuable hand-book, the invention was of no avail to apiarists, 
as it was either unknown, or else ignored by practical men. 
This invention also originated independently with Rev. L. L. 
Langstroth, who brought it forth in 1851, so perfect, that it 
needed scarce any improvement ; and for this gift, as well as 
his able researches in apiculture, as given in his invaluable 



124 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



book, " The Honey-Bee," he has conferred a benefit upon our 
art which cannot be over-estimated, and for which we, as 
apiarists, cannot be too grateful. It was his book — one of my 
old teachers, for which I have no word of chiding — that led 

Fig. 29. 




^ — 



roe to some of the most delightful investigations of my 
life. It was his invention — the Langstroth hive — that enabled 
me to make those investigations. For one, I shall always 
revere the name of Langstroth, as a great leader in scientific 
apiculture, both in America and throughout the world. His 
name must ever stand beside that of Dzierzon and the elder 
Huber. Surely this hive, which left the hands of the great 
master in so perfect a form, that even the details remain 
unchanged by many of our first bee-keepers, should ever bear 
his name. Thus, though I prefer and use the size of frame 
first used, I believe, by Mr. Gallup, still I use the Langstroth 
hive. (See Appendix, page 287). 

CHARACTER OP THE HIVE. 

The main feature of the hive should be simplicity, which 
would exclude doors, drawers, and traps of all kinds. The 
body should be made of good pine or white-wood lumber, one 
inch thick, thoroughly seasoned, and planed on both sides. 
It should be simply a plain box (Fig. 'SO), without top or 
bottom, and of a size and form to suit the apiarist. The size 
will depend upon our purpose. If we desire no comb-honey, 
or desire comb-honey in frames, the hive may contain 4,000 
cubic inches. If we desire honey in boxes, it should not 
contain over 2,000, and may be even smaller. If the hive is- 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



125 



to be a two-story one — that is, one hive above a similar hive 
below (Fig. 29) — I prefer that it should be eighteen inches 
long, twelve inches wide, and twelve inches deep, inside 
measure. If simply small frames or boxes are to be used above, 
I would have the hive at least two feet long. A three-fourths 
inch rabbet should be cut from the top of the sides or ends. 




as the apiarist prefers, on the inside (Fig. 30, c). The rabbet 
may equal a little more than one-half the thickness of the 
board. Heavy tin strips (Fig. 33), three-fourths of an inch 
wide, should be tacked to the side below the rabbet, so as to 
reach one-fourth of an inch above the shoulder. These are 
to bear the frames, and are convenient, as they prevent the 
frames from becoming glued to the hive. We are thus able 
to loosen the frames without jarring the bees. I would not 
have hives without such tin rabbets, though some apiarists, 
among whom is Mr. James Heddon, of this State, whose 
rank as a successful apiarist is very high, do not lil'e them. 
The objection to them is cost, and liability of the frames to 



126 



MANUAL Off THE APIARY. 



move when the hive is moved. But with their use we are 
not compelled to pry the frames loose, and are not so likely 
to irritate the bees, while making an examination of the con- 
tents of the hive, which arguments are conclusive with me. 

Any one who is not a skilled mechanic, especially if he has 
not a buzz-saw, had better join the sides of his hives after 
the style of making common dry-goods boxes (Fig. 30). In 
this case, the sides not rabbeted should project by, else the 
corners will have to be stopped up where they were rabbeted. 

The mechanic may prefer to bevel the ends of the boards, 
and unite them by a miter-joint (Fig. 33). This looks a little 
better, otherwise is not superior to the other method. It is 
difficult to form accurate joints — and as everything about 
the hive should be accurate and uniform — this style is 
not to be recommended to the general apiarist. To miter 
with a hand-saw unless one is very skillful, requires a perfect 
miter-box, and, even then, much care is required to secure 
perfect joints. With a buzz-saw this is easier. We have 

Fig. 31. 




Bevel-Gauge. 

only to make a carrier as follows : Take two boards (Fig. 31 r 
a, b), each one foot in length, and dove-tail them together, 
as though with two others you meant to make a square box. 
Be sure that they form a perfect right-angle. Then bevel 
the ends opposite the angle, and unite these with a third 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. J 27 

board (Fig. 31, c), firmly nailed to the others. We thus have 
a triangular pyramid. Through one of the shorter faces 
make longitudinal slits (Fig. 31, d), so that this can be bolted 
firmly to the saw-table. In use, the longer face will reach 
the saw, and from thence will slant up and back. Along the 
back edge of this a narrow board (Fig. 31, e) should be nailed, 
which will project an inch above it. This will keep the board 
to be beveled in line with the carrier, and will retain the right 
angles. Of course the boards for the hive must be perfect 
rectangles, and of just the right length and width, before the 
bevels are cut. 

Such a carrier (Fig. 31) I ordered for my Barnes' saw, from 
a cabinet-maker. It was made of hard wood, all three joints 
dove-tailed, and nicely finished, at a cost of $1.50. 

In sawing the ends and sides of the hive, whether by hand 
or with a buzz-saw, use should be made of a guide, so that 
perfect uniformity will be secured. 

THE BOTTOM BOARD. 

For ■ a bottom board or stand (Fig. 32), we should have a 
single one-inch board (Fig. 32, b) just as wide as the hive, 
and four inches longer, if the bees are to enter at the end of 
the hive, and as long, and four inches wider, if the bees are to 
enter at the side. This is nailed to two pieces of two by 
four, or two by two scantling (Fig. 32, a, a). Thus the hive 
rests two or four inches from the ground. These scantlings 
should extend at one end eight inches beyond the board, 
and these projections be beveled from the edge of the board, 
to the lower outer corner of the scantling. Upon these 
beveled edges nail a board (Fig. 32, d), which shall reach from 
the edge of the bottom board to the ground. We thus have 
the alighting-board, whose upper edge should be beveled, so 
as to fit closely to the bottom board. If the hives are to be 
carried into a cellar to winter, this alighting-board (Fig. 31, 
d) had better be separate, otherwise it is more convenient to 
have it attached. It may be made separate at first, or may 
be easily separated by sawing off the beveled portion of the 
scantlings. 

Should the apiarist desire his bees to enter at the side of 
the hive, the scantling (Fig. 32, a, a) should run the other 



128 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



way, and the alighting-board (Fig. 32, d) should be longer, 
and changed to the side. I have tried both, and see no dif- 
ference, so the matter may be controlled by the taste of the 
apiarist. 

For an opening to the hive (Fig. 32, c), I would bevel the 
middle of the edge of the bottom board, next to the inclined 
board. At the edge, this bevel should be three-quarters of 



Fig. 32 




an inch deep and four inches wide. It may decrease in both 
width and depth as it runs back, till at a distance of four 
inches, it is one-half an inch wide and five thirty-seconds of 
an inch deep. This may terminate the opening, though the 
shoulder at the end may be beveled off, if desired. 

With this bottom board the bees are near the ground, and 
with the slanting board in front, even the most tired and 
heavily-laden will not fail to gain the hive, as they come in 
with their load of stores. In spring, too, many bees are 
saved, as they come in on windy days, by low hives and an 
alighting-board. N~o hive should be more than four inches 
from the ground, and no hive should be without the slanting 
alighting-board. With this opening, too, the entrance can be 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 129 

contracted in case of robbing, or entirely closed when desired, 
by simply moving the hive back. 

Some apiarists cut an opening in the side of the hive, and 
regulate the size by tin slides or triangular blocks (Fig. 29); 
others form an opening by sliding the hive forward beyond the 
bottom board — which I would do with the above in hot 
weather when storing was very rapid — but for simplicity, 
cheapness and convenience, I have yet to see an opening 
superior to the above. I think, too, I am a competent judge, 
as I have at least a half-dozen styles in present use. 

I strongly urge, too, that only this one opening be used. 
Auger holes about the hive, and entrances on two sides, are 
worse than useless. By enlarging this opening, we secure 
ample ventilation, even in sultry August, and when we con- 
tract the entrance, no bees are lost by finding the usual door 
closed. 

Some of our best bee-keepers, as Messrs. Heddon, Bald- 
ridge, etc., prefer that the bottom board be nailed to the hive 
(Fig. 39). I have such hives ; have had for years, but strongly 
object to them. They will not permit a quick clearing of the 
bottom board, when we give a cleansing flight in winter, or 
when we commence operations in spring, which, especially if 
there is a quart or more of dead bees, is very desirable. Nor 
with their use can we contract the opening in cold weather, 
or to stop robbing, without the blocks (Fig. 29), tins or other 
traps. Simplicity should be the motto in hive-makivcf. 
The arguments in favor of such fastening are : Convenience in 
moving colonies, and in feeding, as we have not to fasten the 
bottoms when we desire to ship our bees, and to feed we have 
only to pour our liquids into the hives. 

Of course, such points are not essential — only matters of 
convenience. Let each one decide for himself, which expe- 
rience will enable him to do. 

THE COVER OF THE HIVE. 

The cover (Fig. 33, a) should be about six inches high, 
and like the lid of a trunk. The length and breadth may be 
the same as the body of the hive, and fit on with beveled 
edges (Fig. 33), the body having the outer edge beveled, and 
the cover the inner. If we thus join the cover and hive with 



130 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



a initered-joint, we must not be satisfied with anything less 
than perfection, else in case of storms, the rain will beat into 
our hives, which should never be permitted. Such covers can 
be fastened to the hives with hinges, or by hooks and staples. 
But unless the apiarist is skilled in the use of tools, or hires a 
mechanic to make his hives, it will be more satisfactory to make 

Fig. 33. 




8AK/CR-CO 



the cover just large enough (Fig. 29) to shut over and rest 
on shoulders formed either by nailing inch strips around the 
body of the hive, one inch from the top, or else inside the 
cover (Fig. 29). If it is preferred to have a two-story hive, 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



131 



with the upper story (Fig. 33, b) just like the lower (Fig. 33, 
c), this (Fig. 53) may join the lower by a miter-joint, while a 
cover (Fig. 33, a) two inches high, may join this with a simi- 
lar joint. 

If the upper story shuts over the lower and rests on a 
shoulder (Fig. 29) it may still be made to take the same sized 
frame, by nailing pieces one-half an inch square to the corners, 
whose length shall equal the distance from the rabbet in the 
lower story to the bottom board. Now nail to these upright 
pieces, parallel to the rabbeted faces below, a three-eighths 
inch board as wide as the pieces are long. The top of these 
thin boards will take the place of the rabbet in the lower 
story. This style, which is adopted in the two-story hives as 
made by Mr. Langstroth (Fig. 29), will permit in the upper 
story the same frames as used in the lower story, while two 
more can be inserted. Upon this upper story a shallow cover 
will rest. Such covers, if desired, may be made roof-like 

Fig. 34. 




(Fig. 34), by cutting end pieces, (Fig 34, b) in form of the 
gable of a house. In this case there will be two slanting 
boards (Fig. 34, a, a), instead of one that is horizontal, to 
carry off the rain. The slanting boards should project at the 
ends (Fig. 34, d), for convenience in handling. In such 
covers we need thin, narrow ridge-boards (Fig. 34, c), to keep 
all perfectly dry. These covers look neat, are not so apt to 
check, and will dry much quicker after a rain. 

If we secure comb-honey in crates, and winter out-doors — 
in which case we shall need to protect in the Northern States 
— it will be convenient to have a box of the same general 
form as the main body of the hive, from six to eight inches 
deep, just large enough to set over the body of the hive and 
rest on shoulder-strips, and without top or bottom ; this to 
have such a cover as just described. Such is the arrange- 



132 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

anent of Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, which, on the 
;seore of simplicity and convenience, has much to recom- 
mend it. 

In the above I have said nothing about porticos (Fig. 29). 
If hives are shaded as they should be, these are useless, and I 
believe that in no case will they pay. To be sure, they are 
nice for spider-webs, and a shady place in which bees may 
cluster ; but such are inconvenient places to study the 
wondrous fabrics of the spider, even were he a friend of the 
bees, and the most successful apiarist will not force his bees 
to hang in idle clusters about- the hive. 

THE FRAMES. 

The form and size of frames, though not quite as various 
.as the persons who use them, are still very different. Some 
prefer large frames. I first used one ten by eighteen inches, 
and afterward a shallow frame about seven by eighteen (Fig. 
29). The advantage claimed for large frames is that there 
are less to handle, and time is saved ; yet may not smaller 
frames be handled so much more dexterously, especially if 
they are to be handled through all the long day, as to compen- 
sate, in part at least, for the number ? The advantage of the 
shallow frame is, as claimed, that the bees will go into boxes 
more readily ; yet they are not considered so safe for out-door 
wintering. This is the style recommended and used by Mr. 
Langstroth, which fact may account for its popularity in the 
United States. Another frame in common use, is one about 
one foot square. I use one eleven inches square. The 
reasons that I prefer this form are, that the comb seldom 
breaks from the frame, the frames are convenient for nuclei 
and save the expense of constructing extra nucleus hives, and 
that these frames permit the most compact arrangement for 
winter and spring, and thus enable us to economize heat. By 
use of a division board, we can, by using eight of these frames, 
occupy just a cubic foot of space in spring, and by repeated 
experiments I have found that a hive so constructed that the 
bees always cover the combs during the early cold weather, 
always gives the best results. As the honey season comes on 
more can be added, till we have reached twelve, as many, I 
think, as will ever.be needed for brood. This was the size of 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 133: 

frame preferred by Mr. Gallup, and is the one used by Messrs. 
Davis and Doolittle, and many others of our most successful 
apiarists. That this size is imperative is, of course, not true ; 
that it combines as many desirable points as any other, I 
think, is true. For apiarists who are not very strong, especially 
for ladies, it is beyond question superior to all others. 

HOW TO CONSTRUCT THE PR AMES. 

In this description, I shall suppose that the frames desired! 
are of the form and size (Fig. 35) which I use. It will be 
easy, for any who may desire, to change the form at pleasure. 

Fig. 35. 



For the top bar (Fig. 35, a) of the frame, use a triangular 
strip twelve and three-quarter inches long, with each face of the 
triangle one inch across. Seven-eighths of an inch from each 
end of this, form a shoulder, by sawing from one angle to 
within one-fourth of an inch of the opposite face, so that 
when the piece is split out from the end, these projections 
shall be just one-fourth of an inch thick throughout. For 
the side pieces (Fig. 35, b, b), take strips eleven inches 
long, seven-eighths of an inch wide, and one-fourth of an inch 
thick. Tack with small brads the end of two of these strips 
firmly to the shoulder of the top-bar, taking pains that the 
end touches squarely against the projection. Now tack to- 
the opposite ends or bottoms, the ends of a similar strip • 
(Fig. 35, d) eleven and a half inches long. We shall thus 
have a square frame. 

If comb-foundation is to be used, and certainly it will be 
by the enterprising apiarist, then the top-bar (Fig. 36, a) 
should be twelve and three-quarters inches by one-quarter by 
one inch, with a rectangular, instead of a triangular, projection. 



134 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

below (Fig. 36, b), which should be one-fourth by one-eighth 
inch, the longest direction up and down. This should be 
entirely to one side of the centre, so that when the foundation 
(Fig. 36, c) is pressed against this piece it will hang exactly 
from the centre of the top-bar. If preferred, the bottom of the 
frame (Fig. 36, e) need not be more than half as wide or thick 
as described above. 

^ The timber should be thoroughly seasoned, and of the best 
pine or white-wood. Care should be taken that the frame be 
made so as to hang vertically, when suspended on the rabbets 
of the hive. To secure this very important point — true 

Fig. 36. 




Frame, also Cross-Section of Top-Bar. 

frames that will always hang true — they should always be 
made around a guide. 

A BLOCK FOR MAKING FRAMES. 

This may be made as follows : Take a rectangular board 
(Fig. 37) eleven and a quarter by thirteen and a half inches. 
On both ends of one face of this, nail hard-wood pieces (Fig. 37, 
e, e) one inch square and eleven inches long, so that one 
end (Fig. 37, g, g) shall lack one-fourth inch of reaching 
the edge of the board. On the other face of the board, nail 
a strip (Fig. 37, e) four inches wide and eleven and a quarter 
inches long, at right-angles to it, and in such position that 
the ends shall just reach to the edges of the board. Midway 
between the one inch square pieces, screw on another hard- 
wood strip (Fig. 37, d) one inch square and four inches long, 
parallel with and three-fourths of an inch from the edge. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



135 



To the bottom of this, screw a semi-oval piece of hoop-steel 
(Fig. 37, b, b), which shall bend around and press against 
the square strips. The ends of this should not reach quite 
to the bottom of the board. Near the ends of this spring, 
fasten, by rivets, an inch strap (Fig. 37, a), which shall be 
straight when thus riveted. These dimensions are for frames 
eleven inches square, inside measure, and must be varied for 
other sizes. 

To use this block, we crowd the end-bars of our frames 
between the steel springs (Fig. 37, b, b) and the square strips 
(Fig. 37, e, e); then lay on our top-bar and nail, after which 
Fig. 37. 




we invert the block and nail the bottom-bar, as we did the 
top-bar. Now press down on the strap (Fig. 37, a), which 
will loosen the frame, when it may be removed, all complete 
and true. Such a gauge not only insures perfect frames, but 
demands that every piece shall be cut with great accuracy. 
And some such arrangement should always be used in making 
the frames. 

The projecting ends of the top-bar will rest on the tins 
(Fig. 33), and thus the frame can be easily loosened at any 
time without jarring the bees, as the frames will not be glued 
fast, as they would in case they rested on the wooden rabbets. 
The danger of killing bees is also abolished by use of the tins. 

When the frames are in the hive there should be at least a 
three-sixteenths inch space between the sides and bottom of 



136 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

the frames, and the sides and bottom of the hive. Even 
doubling this would do no harm ; though a much wider space 
would very likely receive comb, and be troublesome. Frames 
that fit close in the hive, or that reach to the bottom, are 
very inconvenient and undesirable. To secure against this, 
our lumber must be thoroughly seasoned, else when shrink- 
age takes place our frames may touch the bottom-board. 

The distance between the frames may be one-fourth of an 
inch, though a slight variation either way does no harm. Some 
men, of very precise habits, prefer nails or wire staples in the 
side of the frames, at top and bottom, which project just a 
quarter of an inch, so as to maintain this unvarying distance ; 
or staples in the bottom of the hive to secure the same end. 
Mr. Langstroth so arranged his frames, and Mr. Palmer, of 
Hart, Michigan, whose neatness is only surpassed by his suc- 
cess, does the same thing. I have had hives with these extra- 
attachments, but found them no special advantage. I think 
we can regulate the distance with the eye, so as to meet every 
practical demand, and thus save the expense and trouble 
which the above attachments cost. 

COVER FOR FRAMES. 

Nothing that I have ever tried is equal to a quilt for this 
purpose. It is a good absorbent of moisture, preserves the 
heat in spring and winter, and can be used in summer without 
jarring or crushing the bees. This should be a real quilt, 
made of firm unbleached factory, duck, or cambric — I have 
used the first with entire satisfaction for four years — enclosing 
a thick layer of batting, and hemmed about the edges. My 
wife quilts and hems them on a machine. The quilting is in 
squares, and all is made in less than fifteen minutes. The 
quilt should be a little larger than the top of the hive, so that 
after all possible shrinkage, it will still cover closely. Thus, 
when this is put on, no bees can ever get above it. When we 
use the feeder, it may be covered by the quilt, and a flap cut 
in the latter, just above the hole in the feeder, enables us to 
feed without disturbing the bees, though I place the feeder at 
the end of the chamber, wherein are the bees, and have only 
to double the quilt back when I feed. The only objection 
that I know to the quilt is, that the bees will fasten propolis,, 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



137 



and even comb, between it and the frames, and this looks 
bad. A little care will make this a small objection. Mr. 
Langstroth used a board above the frames, which Mr. Heddon 
uses even now. Perhaps Mr. Heddon never used the quilts. 
Perhaps his love of order and neatness caused him to di/scard 
them. Still, I feel to thank Mr. A. I. Root for calling my 
attention to quilts. 

DIVISION BOARD. 

A close-fitting division board (Fig. 38) for contracting the 
chamber, is very important, and though unappreciated by 
many excellent apiarists, still no hive is complete without it. 
Fig. 38. 



I find it especially valuable in winter and spring, and useful 
at all seasons. This is made the same form as the frames, 
though all below the top-bar — which consists of a strip thir- 
teen inches long by one inch by three-eighths, and is nailed 
firmly -to the board below — is a solid inch board (Fig. 38, 
b), which is exactly one foot square, so that it fits closely to 
the inside of the hive. If desired, the edges (Fig. 38, c, c) 
can be beveled, as seen in the figure. When this is inserted 
in the hive it entirely separates the chamber into two chambers, 
so that an insect much smaller than a bee could not pass 
from the one to the other. Mr. A. I. Root makes one of 
cloth, chaff, etc. Yet, I think few apiarists would bother 
with so much machinery. Mr. W. L. Porter, Secretary of 
the Michigan Association, makes the board a little loose, 
and then inserts a rubber strip in a groove sawed in the edges. 
This keeps the board snug, and makes its insertion easy, even 
though heat may shrink or damp may swell either the board 
or hive. I have not tried this, but like the suggestion. 



138 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

The use of the division board is to contract the chamber 
in winter, to vary it so as to keep combs covered in spring, 
to convert the hive into a nucleus hive, and to contract the 
chamber in the upper-story of a two-story hive, when first 
adding frames to secure surplus comb-honey. 

THE HUBER HIVE. 

The other type of hives originated when Huber hinged 
several of his leaf or unicomb hives together, so that the 
frames would open like the leaves of a book ; though it has 
been stated that the Grecians had, in early times, something 
similar. 

In 1866, Mr. T. R Bingham, then of New York, improved 
upon the Huber hive, securing a patent on his triangular 
frame hive. This, so far as I can judge, was the Huber hive 
made practical. 

In 1868, Mr. M. S. Snow, then of New York, now of Min- 
nesota, procured a patent on his hive, which was essentially 
the same as the hives now known as the Quinby and Bingham 
hives. 

Soon after, the late Mr. Quinby brought forth his hive, 
which is essentially the same as the above, only differing in 
details. No patent was obtained by Mr. Quinby, whose great 
heart and boundless generosity endeared him to all acquaint- 
ances. Those who knew him best, never tire of praising the 
unselfish acts and life of this noble man. If we except Mr. 
Langstroth, no man has probably done so much to promote 
the interest and growth of improved apiculture in the United 
States. His hive, his book, his views of wintering, his intro- 
duction of the bellows-smoker — a gift to apiarists — all speak 
his praise as a man and an apiarist. 

The fact that the Bingham hive, as now made, is a great 
favorite with those who have used it, and is pronounced by so 
capable a judge as Mr. Heddon, to be the best movable-comb 
hive in existence, that Mr. Quinby preferred this style or type 
of hive, that the Quinby form is used by the Hetherington 
brothers, Captain J. E., the prince of American apiarists, 
and 0. J., whose neatness, precision, and mechanical skill 
are enough to awaken envy ; that the Russell hive is but a 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



139 



modification of the same type, are surely enough to awaken 
curiosity and bespeak a description. 

The Quinby hive (Fig. 39), as used by the Hetherington 
brothers, consists of a series of rectangular frames (Fig. 39) 
twelve by seventeen inches, outside measure. The ends of these 
frames are one and a half inches wide and half an inch thick. 
The top and bottom one inch wide and half an inch thick. 
The outer half of the ends projects one-fourth of an inch 
beyond the top and bottom. This projection is lined with 
sheet iron, which is inserted in a groove which runs one inch 
into each end of the end-pieces and are tacked by the same 
Fig. 39. 




Frame, Bottom- Board and Frame- Support of Quinby Hive. 
nails that fasten the end-bars to the top and bottom-bars. 
This iron at the end of the bar bends in at right-angles (Fig. 
39, a, a), and extends one-fourth of an inch parallel with the 
top and bottom-bars. Thus, when these frames stand side 
by side, the ends are close, while half-inch openings extend 
between the top and bottom-bars of adjacent frames. The 
bottom-bars, too, are one-fourth of an inch from the bottom- 
board. Tacked to the bottom-board, in line with the position 
of the back end-bars of the frames is an inch strip of sheet- 
iron (Fig. 39, b, b) sixteen inches in length. One-third of 
this strip, from the front edge back, is bent over so it lies not 
quite in contact with the second third, while the posterior third 
receives the tacks which hold it to the bottom-board. Now, 
when in use this iron flange receives the hooks on the corners 
of the frames, so that the frames are held firmly, and can only 



140 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



be moved back and side-wise. In looking at the bees we can 
separate the combs at once, at any place. The chamber can 
be enlarged or diminished simply by adding or withdrawing 
frames. As the hooks are on all four corners of the frames, 
the frames can be either end back, or either side up. Boards 
with the iron hooks close the sides of the brood cavity, while 
a quilt covers the frames. 

The entrance (Fig. 39, e) is cut in the bottom-board as 
already explained, except that the lateral edges are kept 
parallel. A strip of sheet-iron (Fig. 39, d) is tacked across 
this, on which rest the ends of the front end-bars of the 
frames which stand above, and underneath which pass the bees 
as they come to and go from the hive. A box, without bottom 
and with movable top, covers all, leaving a space from four to 
six inches above and on all sides between it and the frames. 
This gives chance to pack with chaff in winter, and for side 
and top storing in sections or boxes in summer. 

The Bingham hive (Fig. 40) is not only remarkably simple, 
but is as remarkable for its shallow depth ; the frames being 
only five inches high. These have no bottom-bar. The end- 

ElG. 40. 




Frames and Bottom-Board of the Bingham Hive. 

bars are one and a half inches wide, and the top-bar square. 
The nails that hold the end-bars pass into the end of the top- 
bar, which is usually placed diagonally, so that an edge, not 
a face, is below ; though some are made with a face below 
(Fig. 40, /), to be used when comb is transferred. The 
frames are held together by two wires, one at each end. Each 
wire (Fig. 40, a) is a little longer than twice the width of the 
hive when the maximum number of frames are used. The ends 
of each wire are united and placed about nails (Fig. 40, b, b) in 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 141 

the ends of the boards (Fig. 40, c, c) which form the sides of the 
brood-chamber. A small stick (Fig. 40, a) spreads these 
wires, and brings the frames close together. A box without 
bottom and with movable cover, is placed about the frames. 
This is large enough and high enough to permit of chaff 
packing in winter and spring. The bottom-board may be 
made like the one already described. Mr. Bingham does not 
bevel the bottom-board, but places lath under three sides of 
the brood- chamber, the lath being nailed to the bottom-board 
— and then uses the blocks to contract the entrance (Fig. 

The advantages of this hive are, simplicity, great space 
above for surplus frames or boxes, capability of being placed 
one hive above another to any height desired, while the frames 
may be reversed, end for end, or bottom for top, or the whole 
brood-chamber turned up-side down. Thus, by doubling, we 
may have a depth of ten inches for winter. 

The objection which I have found in the similar Russell 
hive, is danger of killing bees in rapid handling. In the 
Russell hive the side-bars are halved together, and held in 
place by ingeniously contrived wire hooks. There are no 
bottom-bars. I have used none of these except the Russell. 
They can be manipulated with rapidity, if we care not how 
many bees we crush. It hurts me to kill a bee, and so I find the 
Langstroth style more quickly manipulated. Mr. Snow, too, 
who was the first to make the above style of hive, has discarded 
it in favor of the Langstroth. His objection to the above, 
is the fact that the various combs are not sure to be so built 
as to be interchangeable. Yet that such apiarists as those 
above named prefer these Huber hives, after long use of the 
other style, is certainly not without significance. 



APPARATUS FOR PROCURING COMB-HONEY. 

Although I feel sure that extracted-honey will grow more 
and more into favor, yet it will never supersede the beautiful 
comb, which, from its exquisite flavor and attractive appear- 
ance, has always been, and always will be, admired and desired. 



142 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

So, no hive is complete without its arrangement of boxes, 
section-frames, and crates, all constructed with the view of 
securing this delectable comb-honey in the form that will be 
most irresistible. 

BOXES. 

These are for surplus comb-honey in the most salable form. 
They may be of any size that best suits the taste of the 
apiarist, and the pulse of the market. 

It is well that the sides of these be of glass. Such (Fig. 
41) may be made as follows : For top and bottom procure 
soft-wood boards one-fourth of an inch thick and of the size 



Fig 




desired, one for the bottom and the other for the top of the box. 
Take four pieces half an inch square and as long as the desired 
height of the honey -box. In two adjacent sides of these saw 
grooves in which may slip common glass. These are for corner 
pieces. Now tack with small brads the corners of the bot- 
tom-board to the ends of these pieces, then slide in the 
glass, and in similar way tack the top-board to the other 
ends. Through the bottom-board holes may be bored so that 
the bees may enter. A similar box is made by A. H. Russell, 
of Adrian, Mich., except that tin forms the corners. These 
may be made to take from one to three combs, and are certainly 
very attractive. If made small and set in a crate so that all 
could be removed at once, they would leave little to be desired. 
The Isham box (Fig. 42) is essentially like the Russell ; 
only the tin at the corners is fastened differently. Surely, all 
great minds do run in the same channel. Another form (Fig.43) 
which I find very desirable, and which I used in California 
(where they were introduced by Mr. Harbison) more than ten 
years ago, is made as follows : Dress off common lath so that 
they are smooth, cut off two lengths the desired height of the 
box, and one the desired width ; tack this last piece to the ends 
of the other two, and to the other end tack a similar strip 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



143 



only half as wide. Wo now have a square frame. Place such 
frames side by side till a box is made of the desired length. 
To hold these together, we have now only to tack on either 
side one or two pieces of tin, putting a tack into each section, 
thus forming a compact box without ends. The end frames 

Fig. 42 




should have a whole piece of lath for the bottom, and grooves 
should be cut in the bottom and top laths, so that a glass may 
be put in the ends. Of course there is ample chance for the 
bees to enter from below. Now, by placing small pieces of 
comb, or artificial comb foundation, which ranks as a discovery 
with the movable-frame hive and honey-extractor, on the top 
of each frame (Fig. 43), the bees will be led to construct a 
separate comb in each frame, and each frame may be sold by 
the retail dealer separately, by simply drawing the tacks from 
the tins. Barker and Dicer, of Marshall, Michigan, make a 
very neat sectional honey-box, which is quite like the above, 
except that paper pasted over the frames takes the place of 

Fig. 43. 




the tins. These, too, have wood separators as used and sold 
by the gentlemen named. The honey-boxes may be placed 
directly on the frames, or in case the queen makes trouble by 
entering them to deposit eggs — a trouble which I have seldom 



144 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

met, perhaps because I give her enough to do below — we can 
place strips one-fourth of an inch square between the frames 
and boxes. In case we work extensively for box honey, we 
should have a rack or crate so made that we can remove all 
the boxes at once ; in which case to examine the bees we 
would not have to remove all the boxes separately. 

SURPLUS COMB-HONEY IN SMALL FRAMES. 

Honey in boxes, unless they consist of sections as just de- 
scribed, cannot compete with honey in small frames, in our 
present markets, and without doubt they will fall more and 
more into disfavor. In fact, there is no apparatus for securing 
comb-honey that promises so well as these sections. That 
they are just the thing to enable us to tickle the market is 
shown by their rapid growth in popular favor. Three years 
ago I predicted, at one of our State Conventions, that they 
would soon replace boxes, and was laughed at. Nearly all who 
then laughed, now use these sections. They are cheap, and 
with their use we can get more honey, and in a form that will 
make it irresistable. 

REQUISITES OP GOOD SECTIONS 

The wood should be ichite, the size small, from four to six 
inches square, the sections capable of being glassed, at least 
on the faces, not too much cut off from brood-chamber, cheap, 
easily made, and so arranged as to be put on or taken off the 
hive en masse. 

DESCRIPTION. 

The style of section which I think will soon replace all others, 
is easily made, as follows : For a section four inches square take 
a strip of clean, white veneer — cut from bass-wood, poplar 
or white-wood — such as is used to make berry-boxes, two 
inches wide and twenty inches long ; for larger sections make 
it proportionally longer. Make a shallow" cut every four 

Fig. 44. 

I H Fourlnches. ^ i 

inches at right-angles to the sides — though they will do this, 
if asked to, at the factory. Now with a chisel (Fig. 44) four 
inches long, with one-eighth inch projections at right-angles 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 145 

to the main blade, cut out sections on the opposite edges of 
the main strip — which will leave openings one-eighth inch by 
four inches, between the first and second shallow cut and the 
third and fourth. We now bend this around a square block 
(Fig. 45) which will just fill it, letting the ends overlap, and 
drive through these over-lapping sections one or two small 
wrought brads on to an iron, (Fig. 45, b) set into the block, 
Fig. 45. 
i, 




by which they will be clinched. Or, by using glue, we may 
dispense with the block. Now, if your market requires 
glassed sections, or if you wish to insert dividers, either tin 
or wood, glue posts one-fourth of an inch square, four in each 
section along the uncut sides one-eighth inch from the edges. 
The ends of these will just come flush with the gouged edges 
above and below. Now, by use of tins such as are used to 
fasten window-glass, these can be glassed, or if desired, each 
one can receive a tin or wooden separator. 

If this gluing in of the pieces is thought too troublesome, 
we may still achieve the same end by using tin separators in 
our crates, and then glass our sections by cutting a square 
glass, just the size of the section, outside measure, and with 
heavy white paper paste two of these glass to the sections. 
This makes each section perfectly close, and is the method 
devised by Southard and Ranney for practice the coming sea- 
son. A paste made of dextrine, tragacanth, or even flour, 
will answer to fasten the strips of paper, which need not be 
more than one inch wide. A little carbolic acid, or salicylic 
acid in solution, will keep the paste from souring. 

Every apiarist can make these sections for himself, and thus 
save freight and profits of making. They are neat, very cheap 
— costing but two mills each — and are made strong by use of 
the glued posts. They .are also light. Very soon our cus- 



146 



MANUAL OP THE APIAJR.Y. 



tomers will object to buying wood and glass, if our unglassed 
sections of comb-honey are kept in close glassed crates. 

The Hetherington brothers make a very neat section, as 
follows : The top and bottom are each two inches wide, of 
one-quarter inch white pine. These receive a groove one- 
eighth inch from the ends, which receives the sides, one inch 
wide and one-eighth inch thick, which is pressed through to 
a central position and glued. This section is five and a half 
inches square. They use wooden dividers (Fig. 46, a) one- 
Fig. 46. 




eighth of an inch thick, as long as the section, but one inch 
less in height, so that below and above is a half-inch space, 
which permits the bees to pass readily from one section to 
another. These are held by a half-inch strip of tin (Fig. 46 r 
b, b), which passes through a groove (Fig. 46, c) in the ends 
of the dividers, and reaches half an inch farther ; then turns 
at right-angles and ends in a point (Fig. 46, b), which, when 
in use, sticks into the top or bottom pieces ; and so the four 
points hold the dividers in place. When ready to sell, they 
insert half-inch glass in the grooves each side the narrow side- 
pieces, and with tins fasten glass on the faces, and have a 

Fig. 47. 




very handsome section. I think this preferable to the Russell 
or Isham box or section, as the one-inch strip of wood covers- 
the part of the comb where it is fastened to the sides, which 
is never attractive, while the rest is all glassed. Such sec- 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



147 



tions were praised in New York and Cincinnati last season as 
very fine and neat ; equal, if not superior, to all others. 

A. I. Root prefers sections made as are children's toy 
blocks, the sides fastened by a sort of mortise and tennon 
arrangement (Fig. 47). I have received from Mr. James 
Heddon a similar section, but neater and more finished, which 
is made in Vermont. These are too complex to be made 
without machinery, are no better for their fancy corners— in 
fact, they are not as strong as is desirable — and, as we cannot 
afford to purchase our apparatus when we can as well make 
it ourselves, I cannot recommend them for general use. 

The Phelps- Wheeler-Betsinger sections (Fig. 48) are 
essentially the same. The top and bottom are a little more 
narrow than the sides, and are nailed to them. The Wheeler 



Fig. 48. 




section — invented and patented by Mr. Geo. T. Wheeler,. 
Mexico, New York, in 1870 — are remarkable for being the 
first (Fig. 52, K) to be used with tin separators (Fig. 52, M). 
Instead of making the bottoms one-quarter of an inch nar- 
rower for a passage, Mr. Wheeler made an opening in the 
bottom, as does Mr. Russell. 

HOW TO PLACE SECTIONS IN POSITION. 

There are two methods, each of which is excellent, and 
has, as it well may, earnest advocates — one by use of crates, 
the other by frames. 

HONEY IN FRAMES. 

I prefer this method, perhaps because I have used it most. 
These frames (Fig. 49) are made the same size as the frames 
in the brood-chamber, except that they are made of strips two 
inches wide, and one-fourth of an inch thick, though the bottom- 
bar is a quarter of an inch narrower, so that when two frames 
are side by side, there is one-fourth of an inch space between 



148 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



the bottom bars, though the top and side pieces are close to- 
gether. The sections are of such a size (Fig. 50, K) that 
four, or six, or nine, etc., will just fill one of the large frames. 
Nailed to one side of each large frame are two tin strips 
(Fig. 50, t, t') as long as the frame, and as wide into one inch 
as are the sections. These are tacked half an inch from the 
top and the bottom of the large frames, and so are opposite 
the sections, thus permitting the bees to pass readily from 
<one tier of sections to another, as do the narrower top and 

Fig. 49. 




bottom-bars of the sections, from those below to those above. 
I learned of such an arrangement of sections from A. I. Root. 
Captain Hetherington tells me that Mr. Quinby used them 
years ago. The tin arrangement, though unlike Mr. Wheeler's 
(Fig. 52, M), would be readily suggested by it. It is more 
trouble to make these frames if we have the tins set in so as 
just to come flush with the edge of the end-bars of the 
frames, but then the frames would hang close together, and 
would not be so stuck together with propolis. These may be 
hung in the second story of a two-story hive, and just so 
many as to fill the same — my hives will take nine — or they 
can be put below, beside the brood-combs. Mr. Doolittle, in 
ease he hangs these below, inserts a perforated division-board, 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



149^ 



so that the queen will not enter the sections and lay eggs. I 
used them very successfully last summer without division- 
boards, and neither brood nor pollen were placed in a single 
cell. Perhaps wider tins would prevent this should it occur. 
In long hives — the " New Idea" — which I find very satisfac- 
tory, after several years' trial, especially for extracted honey 
— I have used these frames of . sections, and with 
the best success. The Italians entered them at once, 
and filled them even more quickly than other bees 
filled the sections in the upper story. In fact, one 

Fig. 50. 




great advantage of these sections in the frames is the 
obvious and ample passage-ways, inviting the bees to enter 
them. But in our desire to make ample and inviting open- 
ings, caution is required that we do not over-do the matter, 
and invite the queen to injurious intrusion. So we have 
Charybdis and Scylla, and must, by study, learn to so steer 
between, as to avoid both dangers. 

RACKS. 

These are to use in lieu of large frames, to hold sections, 
and are very convenient when we wish to set the sections only 
one deep above the brood-chamber. Though, if desired, we 



150 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



can place one rack above another, and so have sections two 
and even three deep. 

Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, use a very neat rack 
(Fig. 51), in which they use the thin veneer sections which we 
recommend as superior to all others for the general apiarist. 

Fig. 51. 




They have used these with excellent success, but without 
separators, which they wish to insert. Perhaps by taking out 
the board partitions (Fig. 51, B, J3), and putting tin separa- 
tors the other wav across, they would accomplish their object. 
In this case, the ends of the adjacent sections would not be 
separated, and the width of the rack would just accommodate 
two, three, or four sections, to be governed by size of hive 
and sections. The sheet-iron rests (Fig. 51, IT, IT, IT) 

Fig. 52. 




which, with their bent edges, just raise the rack one-fourth 
of an inch from the brood frames, would then run the other 



MANUAL OV THE APIARY. 151 

way, and give the requisite strength. Thus, the tins would 
not be liable to bend, as they would if run the shorter way of 
the rack. The end-board, too (Fig. 51. A), would be a side- 
board, and the strips (Fig. 51, G, G), with the intervening 
glass, would be at the ends. 

The Wheeler rack (Fig. 52) simply holds the sections, while 
each section is glassed separately. 

Captain Hetherington sets a rack of sections above the 
frames, and stands sections One above the other on the side for 
ade storing. Mr. Doolittle makes a rack by placing frames, 
such as I have described — except they are only half as high, 
and hold but two sections — side by side, where they are held 
by tacking a stick on top across each end of the row. He 
also places two tiers, two deep, at each end of the brood- 
chamber, if he desires to give so much room. 

All apiarists who desire to work for comb honey which will 
sell, will certainly use the sections, and either adjust them by 
use of frames or crates. 

FOOT-POWER SAW. 

Every apiarist who keeps upwards of fifty colonies of bees, 
and makes apiculture a specialty, will find a foot power saw 
a very valuable apparatus. 

I have now used the admirable combined foot-power saw of 
W. F. & John Barnes for a year, and find that it grows in 
value each month. It permits rapid work, insures uniformity, 
and enables the apiarist to give a finish to his work that would 
rival that of the cabinet-maker. 

Those who procure such a machine should learn to file and 
set the saws, and should never run the machine when not in 
perfect order. 



152 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



CHAPTER VI. 

POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF APIARY. 

As it is desirable to have our apiary grounds so fixed as to 
give the best results, and as this costs some money and more 
labor, it should be done once for all. As plan and execution 
in this direction must needs precede even the purchase of 
bees, this subject deserves an early consideration. Hence, we 
will proceed to consider position, arrangement of grounds, 
and preparation for each individual colony. 

POSITION. 

Of course, it is of first importance that the apiary be near 
at hand. In city or village this is imperative. In the country 
or at suburban homes, we have more choice, but close 
proximity to the house is of much importance. In a city, it 
may be necessary to follow friend Muth's example, and locate 
on the house-tops, where, despite the inconvenience, we may 
achieve success. The lay of the ground is not important, 
though if a hill, it should not be very steep. It may slope 
in any direction, but better any way than toward the north. 

ARRANGEMENT OF GROUNDS. 

Unless sandy, these should be well drained. If a grove 
offers inviting shade, accept it, but trim high to avoid damp. 
Such a grove could soon be formed of bass-wood and tulip 
trees, which, as we shall see, are very desirable, as their bloom 
offers plenteous and most delicious honey. Even Virgil urges 
shade of palm and olive, also that we screen the bees from 
winds. Wind-screens are very desirable, especially on the 
windward side. Such a screen may be formed of a tall board 
fence, which, if it surrounds the grounds, will also serve to 
protect against thieves. Yet these are gloomy and forbidding, 
and will be eschewed by the apiarist who has an eye to 
aesthetics. Ever-green screens, either of Norway spruce, 
Austrian or other pine, or arbor vitas, each or all, are not only 
very effective, but are quickly grown, inexpensive, and add. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 153 

greatly to the beauty of the grounds. If the apiary is large, 
a small, neat, inexpensive house, in the centre of the apiary 
grounds, is indispensable. This will serve in winter as a shop 
for making hives, frames, etc., and as a store-house for honey, 
while in summer it will be used for extracting, transferring, 
storing, bottling, etc. In building this, it will be well to con- 
struct a frost-proof, thoroughly drained, dark, and welb 
ventilated cellar. To secure the thorough ventilation, pass a 
tube, which may be made of tile, from near the bottom, 
through the earth to. the surface ; and another, from near the 
bottom, to the chimney or stove-pipe above. 

PREPARATION FOR EACH COLONY. 

Virgil was right in recommending shade for each colony. 
Bees are forced to cluster outside the hive, where the hives 
are subjected to the full force of the sun's rays. By the 
intense heat, the temperature inside becomes like that of an 
oven, and the wonder is that they do not desert entirely. I 
have known hives, thus unprotected, to be covered by bees, 
idling outside, when by simply shading the hives, all would 
go merrily to work. The combs, too, and foundation 
especially, are liable, in unshaded hives, to melt and fall 
down, which is very damaging to the bees, and very vexatious 
to the apiarist. The remedy for all this is to always have the 
hives so situated that they will be entirely shaded all through 
the heat of the day. This might be done by constructing a shed 
or house, but these are expensive and inconvenient, and, there- 
fore, to be discarded. Perhaps the Coe house-apiary (Chap. 
XVIII) may prove an exception ; but, as yet, we have no 
reliable assurance of the fact. 

If the apiarist has a convenient grove, this may be trimmed 
high, so as not to be damp, and will fulfill every requirement. 
So arrange the hives that while they are shaded through all the 
heat of the day, they wili receive the sun's rays early and late, 
and thus the bees will work more hours. I always face my hives 
to the east. If no grove is at command, the hives maybe placed 
on the north of a Concord grape-vine, or other vigorous variety, 
as the apiarist may prefer. This should be trained to a trellis, 
which may be made by setting two posts, either of cedar or 
oak. Let these extend four or five feet above the ground, 
and be three or four feet apart. Connect them at intervals of 



154 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

eighteen inches with three galvanized wires, the last one being 
at the top of the posts. Thus we can have shade and grapes, 
and can see for ourselves that bees do not injure grapes. If 
preferred, we may use evergreens for this purpose, which can 
be kept low, and trimmed square and close on the north. 
These can be got at once, and are superior in that they furnish 
ample shade at all seasons. Norway spruce is the best. 
These should be at least six feet apart. A. I. Root's idea of 
having the vines of each succeeding row divide the spaces of 
the previous row, in quincunx order, is very good ; though I 
should prefer the rows in this case to be four, instead of three 
feet apart, especially with ever-greens. Until protecting shade 
can be thus permanently secured, boards should be arranged 
for temporary protection. Many apiarists economize by using 
fruit trees for this purpose, which, from their spreading tops, 
answer very well. 

Mr. A. I. Root's idea of having sawdust under and about 
the hives is, I think, a good one. The hives of the Michigan 
Agricultural College (Fig. 53) are protected by evergreens, 
trimmed close on the north side. A space four feet by six, 
north of the shrubs, was then dug out to a depth of four 
inches, and filled with sawdust (Fig. 53, f), underlying which 
were old bricks, so that nothing would grow up through the 
sawdust. The sawdust thus extends one foot back, or west 
of the hive, three feet north, and the same distance to the 
east or front side of the hive. This makes it neat about 
the hive, and largely removes the danger of losing the queen 
in handling the bees ; as should she fall outside the hive, the 
sharp-sighted apiarist would be very likely indeed to see her. 

Mr. J. H. Nellis, the able Secretary of the North-Eastern 
Bee-Keepers' Association, objects to sawdust, as he thinks it 
rots too quickly, and blows about badly. He would use sand 
or gravel instead. I have tried both gravel and sawdust, and 
prefer the latter, as explained above. By having the sawdust 
a little below the general surface, and adding a little once in 
four or five years, it keeps all nice and agreeable. After the 
evergreens are well started, all the space between the saw- 
dust areas should be in grass, and kept neatly mown. This 
takes but a little time, and makes the apiary always pleasant 
and inviting. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



155 



*S&g 




156 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



CHAPTER VII. 
TO TRANSFER BEES. 

As you may have purchased your bees in box hives, and 
so, of course, will desire to transfer them immediately into' 
movable-frame hives, or, as already suggested, you may wish 
to transfer from one movable-frame to another, I will now pro- 
ceed to describe the process. 

The best time to transfer is early in the season, when there 
is but little honey in the hives, though it may be done at any 
time, if sufficient caution is used : still it should never be 
done except on warm days, when the bees are actively engaged 
in storing. After the bees are busy at work, approach the 
old hive, blow a little smoke into the entrance to quiet the 
bees, then carry the hive off a few feet, and turn it bottom 
up. Place a box over the hive — it will make no difference 
whether it fits it close or not, if the bees are so smoked as to 
be thoroughly alarmed — -and with a stick rap on the lower 
hive for about twenty minutes. The bees will fill with honey 
and go with the queen into the upper hive and cluster. If 
towards the last we carefully set the box off once or twice, 
and vigorously shake the hive, and then replace the box, we 
will hasten the emigration of the bees, and make it more 
complete. I got this suggestion from Mr. Baldridge. A few 
young bees will still remain in the old hive, but these will do 
no harm. Now put the box on the old stand, leaving the edge 
raised so that the bees which were out may enter, and so all 
the bees can get air. If other bees do not trouble, as they 
usually will not if busily gathering, we can proceed in the 
open air. If they do we must go into so.me room. I have 
frequently transferred the comb in my kitchen, and often in 
a barn. Now knock the old hive apart, cut the combs from 
the sides, and get the combs out of the old hive with just as 
little breakage as possible. Mr. Baldridge, if transferring in 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 157 

spring, saws the combs and cross-sticks loose from the sides, 
turns the hive into the natural position, then strikes against 
the top of the hive with a hammer till the fastenings are 
broken loose, when he lifts the hive, and the combs are all 
free and in convenient shape for rapid work. 

We now need a barrel, set on end, on which we place a 
board fifteen to twenty inches square, covered with several 
thicknesses of cloth. Some apiarists think the cloth useless, 
but it serves, I think, to prevent injury to comb, brood or 
honey. We now place a comb on this cloth, and a frame on 
the comb, and cut out the comb the size of the inside of the 
frame, taking pains to save all the brood. Now crowd the 
frame over the comb, so that the latter will be in the same 
position that it was when in the old hive ; that is, so the honey 
will be above — the position is not very important — then fasten 
the comb in the frame, by winding about all one or two small 
wires or pieces of wrapping twine. To raise the frame and 
comb before fastening, raise the board beneath till the frame 
is vertical. Set this frame in the new hive, and proceed with 
the others in the same way till we have all the worker-comb — 
that with small cells — fastened in. To secure the pieces, 
which we shall find abundant at the end, take thin pieces of 
wood, one-half inch wide and a trifle longer than the frame is 
deep, place these in pairs either side the comb, extending up 
and down, and enough to hold the pieces secure till the bees 
shall fasten them, and secure the strips by winding with small 
wire, just above and below the frame, or else tack them to 
the frame with small tacks. 

Captain -Hetherington has invented and practices a very 
neat method of fastening comb into frames. In constructing 
his frames, he bores small holes through the top, side, and 
bottom-bars of his frames, about two inches apart ; these 
holes are just large enough to permit the passage of the long- 
spines of the hawthorn. Now, in transferring comb, he has 
but to stick these thorns through into the comb to hold it 
securely. He can also use all the pieces, and still make a 
neat and secure frame of comb. He finds this arrangement 
convenient, too, in strengthening insecure combs. In answer 
to my inquiry, this gentleman said it paid well to bore such 
holes in all his frames, which are eleven by sixteen inches, 



158 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

inside measure. I discarded such frames because of the 
liability of the comb to fall out. 

Mr. Baldridge makes wads of comb, or comb-cappings, 
which he finds good, and by pressing these against the edges 
of the comb he wishes to fasten, he fastens them to the frames, 
quickly and securely. 

Having fastened all the worker-comb that we can into 
the frames — of course all the other, and all bright drone- 
comb, will be preserved for use as guide-comb — and placed 
the frames in the new hive — these should be put together 
if they contain brood, especially if the colony is not very 
strong, and the empty frames to one side — we then place our 
hive on the stand, pushing it forward so that the bees can 
enter anywhere along the alighting-board, and then shake all 
the bees from the box, and any young bees that may have 
clustered on any part of the old hive, or on the floor 
or ground, where we transferred the comb, immediately in 
front. They will enter at once and soon be at work, all the 
busier for having passed "from the old house into the new." 
In two or three days, remove the wires or strings and 
sticks, when we shall find the combs all fastened and smoothed 
off, and the bees as busily engaged as though their present 
home had always been the seat of their labors. In case we 
practice the methods of either Captain Hetherington or Mr. 
Baldridge, there will be nothing to remove, and we need 
only go and congratulate the bees in view of their new and 
improved home. 

Of course, in transferring from one frame to another, the 
matter is much simplified. In this case, after thoroughly 
smoking the bees, we have but to lift the frames, and shake or 
brush the bees into the new hive. For a brush, a chicken or 
turkey wing, or a large wing or tail feather from a turkey, 
goose or peacock, serves admirably. Now, cut out the comb 
in the best form to accommodate the new frames, and fasten 
as already suggested. After the combs are all transferred, 
shake all remaining bees in front of the new hive, which has 
already been placed on the stand previously occupied by the 
old hive. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. . 159 



CHAPTER VIII. 

FEEDING AND FEEDERS. 

As already stated, it is only when the worker-bees are 
storing that the queen deposits to the full extent of her capa- 
bility, and that brood-rearing is at its height. In fact, when 
storing ceases, general indolence characterizes the hive. 
Hence, if we would achieve the best success, we must keep 
the workers active, even before gathering commences, as also 
in the interims of honey secretion by the flowers ; and to do 
this we must feed sparingly before the advent of bloom 
in the spring, and whenever the neuters are forced 
to idleness during any part of the season, by the ab- 
sence of honey-producing flowers. For a number of 
years, I have tried experiments in this direction by feeding 
a portion of my colonies early in the season, and in the 
intervals of honey-gathering, and always with marked results 
in favor of the practice. 

Every apiarist, whether novice or veteran, will receive 
ample reward by practicing stimulative feeding early in the 
season ; then his hive at the dawn of the white clover era 
will be redundant with bees, well filled with brood, and in just 
the trim to receive a bountiful harvest of this most delicious 
nectar. 

Feeding, too, is often necessary to secure sufficient stores 
for winter — for no apiarist, worthy the name, will suffer his 
faithful, willing subjects to starve, when so little care and 
expense will prevent it. 

HOW MUCH TO FEED. 

If we only wish to stimulate, the amount fed need not be 
great. A half pound a day, or even less, will be all that is 
necessary to encourage the bees to active preparation for the 
good time coming. For information in regard to supplying 
stores for winter see Chapter XVII. 



160 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



WHAT TO FEED. 

For this purpose I would feed coffee A sugar, reduced to 
the consistency of honey, or else extracted honey kept over 
from the previous year. The price of the latter will decide 
which is the most profitable. Honey, too, that has been 
drained or forced out of eappings, etc., is good, and only good 
to feed. Many advise feeding the poorer grades of sugar in 
spring. My own experience makes me question the policy of 
ever using such feed for bees. The policy, too, of feeding 
glucose I much question. In all feeding, unless extracted 
honey is what we are using, we cannot exercise too great care 
that "such feed is not carried to the surplus boxes. Only let 




Division- Board Feeder. 

Lower part of the face of the can removed, to show float, etc. 

our customers once taste sugar in their comb-honey, and not 
only is our own reputation gone, but the whole fraternity is 
injured. In case we wish to have our combs in the sections 
filled or capped, we must feed extracted honey, which may 
often be done with great advantage. 

HOW TO FEED. 

The requisites of a good feeder are : Cheapness, a form to 
admit quick feeding, to permit no loss of heat, and so ar- 
ranged that we can feed without in any way disturbing the 
bees. The feeder (Fig. 54) which I have used with the best 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



161 



satisfaction, is a modified division-board, the top-bar of which 
(Fig. 54, b) is two inches wide. From the upper central 
portion, beneath the top-bar, a rectangular piece, the size of an 
oyster-can, is replaced with an oyster-can (Fig 54, g), after 
the top of the latter has been removed A vertical piece of 
wood (Fig. 54, d) is fitted into the can so as to separate a 
space about one inch square, on one side from the balance of 
the chamber. This piece does not reach quite to the bottom 
of the can, there being a one-eighth inch space beneath. In 
the top-bar there is an opening (Fig. 54, e) just above the 

Fig. 55. 




Simplicity Bee-Feeder. 

smaller space below. In the larger space is a wooden float 
(Fig. 54,/) full of holes. On one side, opposite the larger 
chamber of the can, a half-inch piece of the top (Fig. 54, 
o) is cut off, so that the bees can pass between the can and 
top-bar on to the float, where they can sip the feed. The feed 
is turned into the hole in the top-bar (Fig. 54, e), and without 
touching a bee, passes down under the vertical strip (Fig. 54, 
<?) and raises the float (Fig. 54, /'). The can may be tacked 
to the board at the ends near the top. Two or three tacks 
through the can into the vertical piece (Fig. 54, d) will hold 
the latter firmly in place ; or the top-bar may press on the 



162 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

vertical piece so that it cannot move. Crowding a narrow 
piece of woolen cloth between the can and board, and nailing 
a, similar strip around the beveled edge of the division-board 
makes all snug. One of our students suggests the name 
" Perfection" for this feeder. The feeder is placed at the 
end of the brood-chamber (page 137), and the top-bar covered 
by the quilt. To feed, we have only to fold the quilt over, 
when with a tea-pot we pour the feed into the hole in the 
top-bar. If a honey-board is used, there must be a hole in 
this just above the hole in the division-board feeder. In. 
either case, no bees can escape, the heat is confined, and our 
division-board feeder is but little more expensive than a di- 
vision-board alone. 

Some apiarists prefer a quart tin can with finely perforated 
cover. This is filled with liquid, the cover put on, and the 
whole quickly inverted and set above a hole in the quilt. 
Owing to the pressure of the air, the liquid will not descend 
so rapidly that the bees cannot sip it up. 

Many other styles of feeders are in use, as the ' ; Simplici- 
ty" and " Boss," but I have yet to see one that in all respects- 
equals the one figured and described above. 

The best time to feed is just at night-fall. In this case the 
feed will be carried away before the next day, and the danger 
to weak colonies from robbing is not so great. 

In feeding during the cold days of April, all should be 
close above the bees to economize the heat. In all feeding, 
care is requisite that we may not spill the feed about the 
apiary, as this may, and very generally will, induce robbing. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 163 



CHAPTER IX. 
QUEEN REARING. 

Suppose the queen is laying two thousand eggs a day, and 
that the full number of bees is forty thousand, or even more — 
though the bees are liable to so many accidents, and as the 
queen does not always lay to her full capacity, it is quite 
probable that this is about an average number — it will be seen 
that each day that a colony is without a queen there is a loss 
equal to about one-twentieth of the working force of the 
colony, and this is a compound loss, as the aggregate loss of 
any day is its special loss, augmented by the several losses of 
the previous days. Now, as queens are liable to die, to be- 
come impotent, and as the act of increasing colonies demands 
the absence of queens, unless the apiarist has extra ones at his 
command, it is imperative, would we secure the best results, 
to ever have at hand extra queens. So the young apiarist 
must early learn 

HOW TO REAR QUEENS. 

As queens may be needed by the last of May, preparations 
looking to the early rearing of queens must commence early. 
When preparing the colonies for winter the previous autumn, 
be sure to place some drone-comb somewhere near the centre 
of the colony that has given the best results the previous 
season. In March, and certainly by the first of April, see 
that all colonies have plenty of bee-bread. If necessary, place 
unbolted flour, that of rye or oats is best, in shallow troughs 
near the hives. It may be well to give the whole apiary the 
benefit of such feeding before the flowers yield pollen. Yet, 
I have found that here in Central Michigan, bees can usually 
gather pollen by the first week of April, which I think is as 
early as they should be allowed to fly, and, in fact, as early as 
they will fly with sufficient regularity to make it pay to feed 



164 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

the meal. I much question, after some years of experiment, if 
it ever pays to give the bees a substitute for pollen. 

The colony under consideration, should be given frames con- 
taining bee-bread which was stored the previous year. At 
the same time, March or April, commence stimulative feeding. 
If you have another colony equally good with the first, also give 
that the pollen, and commence giving it honey or syrup, but only 
worker-comb should be in the brood-chamber. This will pre- 
vent the close in-breeding which would of necessity occur if 
both queens and drones were reared in the same colony ; and 
which, though regarded as deleterious in the breeding of all 
animals, should be practiced in case one single queen is of 
•decided superiority to all others of the apiary. 

Very likely in April, drone-eggs will be laid in drone-comb. 
I have had drones flying on the first of May. As soon as the 
drones commence to hatch out, remove the queen and all eggs 
and uncapped brood from some good, strong colony, and 
replace it with eggs or brood just hatched from the colony 
that is being fed, or if two equally good colonies have been 
stimulated, from the one in which no drone-comb was placed. 
The queen which has been removed may be used in making 
a new colony, in manner soon to be described under "dividing 
or increasing the number of colonies." This queenless colony 
will immediately commence forming queen-cells (Fig. 56). 
Sometimes these are formed to the number of fifteen or 
twenty, and they are started, too, in a full, vigorous colony, 
in fact, under the most favorable conditions. Cutting off 
edges of the comb, or cutting holes in the same where there 
are eggs or larvae just hatched, will almost always insure the 
starting of queen-cells in such places. It will be noticed, too, 
that our queens are started from eggs or from larvae but just 
hatched, as we have given the bees no other, and so are fed 
the royal pabulum from the first. Thus, we have met every 
possible requisite to secure the most superior queens. By 
removal of the queen we also secure a large number of cells, 
while if we waited for the bees to start the cells preparatory 
to natural swarming, in which case we secure the two desirable 
•conditions named above, we shall probably fail to secure so 
many cells, and may have to wait longer than we can afford. 

Even the apiarist who keeps black bees and desires no 



. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 165 

others, or who has only pure Italians, will £till find that it 
pays to practice this selection, for, as with the poultry fancier, 
or the breeder of our larger domestic animals, so, too, the 
apiarist is ever observing some individuals of marked supe- 
riority, and he who carefully selects such queens to breed 
from, will be the one whose profits will make him rejoice, 
and whose apiary will be worthy of all commendation. As will 
be patent to all, by the above process we exercise a care in 
breeding which is not surpassed by the best breeders of horses 
and cattle, and which no wise apiarist will ever neglect. 

After we have removed all the queen-cells, in manner soon 
to be described, we can again supply eggs, or newly-hatched 
larvse — always from those queens which close observation has 
shown to be the most vigorous and prolific in the apiary — and 
thus keep the same queenless colony or colonies, engaged in 
starting queen-cells till we have all we desire. Yet we must 
not fail to keep this colony strong by the addition of capped 
brood, which we may take from any hive as most convenient. 
I have good reason to believe that queen-cells should not be 
started after the first of September, as I have observed that 
late queens are not only less prolific, but shorter lived. In 
nature, late queens are rarely produced, and if it is true that 
they are inferior, it might be explained in the fact, that the 
ovaries remain so long inactive. As queens that are long 
unmated are utterly worthless, so, too, mated queens long- 
inactive are enfeebled. 

In a week the cells are capped, and the apiarist is ready to 
form his 

NUCLEI. 

A nucleus is simply a miniature colony of bees — a hive 
and colony on a small scale, for the purpose of rearing and 
keeping queens. We want the queens, but can afford to each 
nucleus only a few bees. The nucleus hive, if we use frames 
not more than one foot square, need be nothing more than 
an ordinary hive, with chamber confined by a division-board 
to the capacity of three frames. If our frames are large, 
then it may be thought best to construct special nucleus hives. 
These are small hives, need not be more than six inches each 
way, that is, in length, breadth, and thickness, and made to 



166 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

contain from four to six frames of corresponding size. These 
frames are filled with comb. I have for the last two or three 
years used the first named style of nucleus hive, and have 
found it advantageous to have a few long hives made, each 
to contain five chambers, while each chamber is entirely 
separate from the one next to it, is five inches wide, and 
is covered by a separate, close-fitting board, and the whole by 
a common cover. The entrance for the two end chambers is 
at the ends near the same side of the hive. The middle 
chamber has its entrance at the middle of the side near which 
are the end entrances, while the other two chambers open on 
the opposite side, as far apart as is possible. The outside 
might be painted different colors to correspond with the 
divisions, if thought necessary, especially on the side with 
two openings. Yet I have never taken this precaution, nor 
have I been troubled much by losing queens. They have 
almost invariably entered their own apartments when return- 
ing from their wedding tour. These hives I use to keep 
queens during the summer. Except the apiarist engages in 
queen-rearing extensively as a business, I doubt the propriety of 
building such special nucleus hives. The usual hives are good 
property to have in the apiary, will soon be needed, and may 
be economically used for all nuclei. In spring I make use of 
my hives which are prepared for prospective summer use, for 
my nuclei. Now go to different hives of the apiary, and take 
out three frames for each nucleus, at least one of which has 
brood, and so on, till there are as many nuclei prepared as 
you have queen-cells to dispose of. The bees should be left 
adhering to the frames of comb, only vie must be certain that 
the queen is not among them, as this would take the queen from 
where she is most needed, and would lead to the sure destruc- 
tion of one queen-cell. To be sure of this, never take such 
frames till you have seen the queen, that you may be sure 
she is left behind. I usually shake off into the nucleus the 
bees from one or two more frames, so that, even after the old 
bees have returned, there will still be a sufficient number of 
young bees left in the nucleus to keep the temperature at a 
proper height. If any desire the nuclei with smaller frames, 
these frames must of course be filled with comb, and then we 
can shake bees immediately into the nuclei, as given above, 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



167 



till they shall have sufficient to preserve a proper temperature. 
In this case the queen-cell should be inserted just before the 
bees are added ; in the other case, either before or after. 
Such special articles about the apiary are costly and incon- 
venient. I believe that I should use hives even with the 
largest frames for nuclei. In this case we should need to 
give more bees. To insert the queen-cell — for we are now to 
give one to each nucleus, so we can never form more nuclei 
than we have capped queen-cells — we first cut them out, 
commencing to cut on either side the base of the cell, at least 
one-half inch distant, we must not in the least compress the 
cell, then cutting up and out for two inches, then across oppo- 
site the cell. This leaves the cell attached to a wedge- 

Fig. 56. 




shaped piece of comb (Fig. 56), whose apex is next the cell. 
A similar cut in the middle frame of the nucleus, which in 
case of the regular frames is the one containing brood, will 
furnish an opening to receive the wedge containing the cell. 
The comb should also be cut away beneath (Fig. 56), so that 
the cell cannot be compressed. After all the nuclei have 
received their cells and bees, they have only to be set in a 
shady place and watched to see that sufficient bees remain. 
Should too many leave, give them more by removing the cover 



168 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

and shaking a frame loaded with bees over the nucleus ; keep the 
opening nearly closed, and cover the bees with a quilt. The 
main caution in all this is to be sure not to get any old queen 
in a nucleus. In two or three days the queens will hatch, and 
in a week longer will have become fertilized, and that, too, 
in case of the first queens, by selected drones, for as yet 
there are no other in the apiary, and the apiarist will possess 
from ten to thirty -five queens, which will prove his best stock 
in trade. I cannot over-estimate the advantage of ever 
having extra queens. To secure pure mating later, we must 
cut all drone-comb from inferior colonies, so that they shall 
rear no drones. If drone larvae are in uncapped cells, they 
may be killed by sprinkling the comb wiflh cold water. By 
giving the jet of water some force they may be washed out, 
or we may throw them out with the extractor, then use the 
comb for starters in our sections. By keeping empty frames, 
and empty cells in the nuclei, the bees may be kept active ; 
yet with so few bees, one cannot expect very much from the nu- 
clei. After cutting all the queen-cells from our old hive, we 
can again insert eggs, as above suggested, and obtain another lot 
of cells, or, if we have a sufficient number, we can leave a 
single queen-cell, and this colony will soon be the happy pos- 
sessor of a queen, and just as flourishing as if the even tenor 
of its ways had not been disturbed. 

SHALL WE CLIP THE QUEEN'S WING? 

In the above operation, as in many other manipulations of 
the hive, we shall often gain sight of the queen, and can, if 
we desire, clip her wing, if she has met the drone, that in no 
case she shall lead the colony away to parts unknown. This 
does not injure the queen, as some have claimed. General 
Adair once stated that such treatment injured the queen, as 
it cut off some of the air-tubes, which view was approved by 
so excellent a naturalist as Br. Packard. Yet we are sure 
that this is all a mistake. The air-tube and blood-vessel, as 
we have seen, go to the wings to carry nourishment to these 
members. With the wing goes the necessity of nourishment 
and the need of the tubes. As well say that the amputation 
of the human leg or arm would enfeeble the constitution, as 
it would cut off the supply of blood. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 169 

Many of our best apiarists have practiced this clipping of 
the queen's wings for years. Yet, these qu,eens show no dimi- 
nution of vigor ; we should suppose they would be even more 
vigorous, as useless organs are always nourished at the expense 
of the organism, and if entirely useless, are seldom long con- 
tinued by nature. The ants set us an example in this matter, 
as they bite the wings off their queens, after mating has trans- 
pired. They mean that the queen ant shall remain at home 
nolens volens, and why shall not we require the same of the 
queen bee ? Were it not for the necessity of swarming in na- 
ture, we should doubtless have been anticipated in this matter 
by nature herself. Still, if the queen essays to go with a swarm, 
and if the apiarist is not at hand, she will very likely be lost, 
never regaining the hive ; but in this case the bees will be 
saved, as they will return without fail. I always mean to be 
so watchful, keeping my hives shaded, giving ample room, 
and dividing or increasing, as to prevent natural swarming. 
But in lieu of such caution I see no objection to clipping the 
queen's wing, and would advise it. 

Some apiarists clip one primary wing the first year, 
the secondary the second year, the other primary the 
the third, and if age of the queen permits, the remaining 
wing the fourth year. Yet, such data, with other matters of 
interest and importance, better be kept on a slate or card, and 
firmly attached to the hive, or else kept in a record, opposite 
the number of the hive. The time required to find the queen 
is sufficient argument against the " queen-wing record." It is 
not an argument against the once clipping of the queen's wings, 
for, in the nucleus hives, queens are readily found, and even in 
full colonies this is not very difficult, especially if we heed the 
dictates of interest and keep Italians. It will be best, even 
though we have to look up black queens, in full colonies. 
The loss of one good colony, or the vexatious trouble of 
separating two or three swarms which had clustered together, 
would soon vanquish this argument of time. 

To clip the queen's wing, take hold of her wings with the 
left thumb and index finger — never grasp her body, especially 
her abdomen, as this will be very apt to injure her — raise 
her off the comb, then turn from the bees, place her gently 
on a board or any convenient object — even the knee will do — 



170 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

she will thus stand on her feet, and not trouble by constantly 
passing her legs up by her wings, where they, too, would be 
in danger of being cut off. Now, take a small pair of scissors, 
and with the right hand open them, cai*efully pass one blade 
under one of the front wings, shut the blades, and all is over. 
Some apiarists complain that queens thus handled often 
receive a foreign scent, and are destroyed by the bees. I have 
clipped hundreds, and never lost one. I believe that the 
above method will not be open to this objection. Should the 
experience of' any one prove to the contrary, the drawing on 
of a kid glove, or even the fingers of one, might remove the 
difficulty. 



FERTILE WORKERS. 

We have already referred to (pp. 77 and 90) and described 
fertile workers. As these can only produce unimpregnated 
eggs, they are, of course, valueless, and unless superseded by 
a queen, will soon cause the destruction of the colony. As 
their presence often prevents the acceptance of cells or a 
queen, by the common workers, they are a serious pest. 

The absence of worker brood, and the abundant and care- 
less deposition of eggs — some cells being skipped, while others 
have received several eggs — are pretty sure indications of 
their presence. 

To rid a colony of these, unite it with some colony with a 
good queen, after which the colony may be divided if very 
strong. Simply exchanging places of a colony with a fertile 
worker, and a good strong colony, will often cause the destruc- 
tion of the wrong-doer. In this case, brood should be given 
to the colony which had the fertile worker, that they may rear 
a queen ; or better, a queen-cell or queen should be given 
them. / Caging a queen in a hive, with a fertile worker, for 
thirty-six hours, will often cause the bees to accept her. 
Shaking the bees off the frames two rods from the hive, will 
often rid them of the counterfeit queen, after which they will 
receive a queen-cell or a queen. "* 



A1ANTTAL OF THE APIARY. 171 



CHAPTER X. 

INCREASE OF COLONIES. 

No subject will be of more interest to the beginner, than 
that of increasing stocks. He has one or two, he desires as 
many score, or, if very aspiring, as many hundred, and if a 
Hetherington or a Harbison, as many thousand. This is a 
subject, too, that may well engage the thought and study of 
men of no inconsiderable experience. I believe that many 
veterans are not practicing the best methods in obtaining j.n 
increase of stocks. 

Before proceeding to name the ways, or to detail 
methods, let me state and enforce, that it is always safest, 
and generally wisest, especially for the beginner, to be con- 
tent with doubling, and certainly, with tripling, his number 
of colonies each season. Especially let all remember the motto, 
■•" Keep all colonies strong." 

There are two ways to increase : The natural, known as 
swarming, already described under natural history of the bee ; 
and artificial, improperly styled artificial swarming. This is 
also called, and very properly, too, "dividing." 

SWARMING. 

To prevent anxiety and constant watching, and to secure a 
more equable division of bees, and, as I know, more honey, 
it is better to provide against swarming entirely by use of 
means which will appear in the sequel. But as this requires 
some experience, and, as often, through neglect, either neces- 
sary or culpable, swarms may issue, every apiarist should be 
ever ready with both means and knowledge for immediate 
action. Of course, the hives were all made the previous 
winter, and will never be wanting. Neglect to provide 
hives before the swarming season, is convincing proof that 
the wrong pursuit has been chosen. 

If, as we have advised, the queen has her wing clipped, the 



172 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

matter becomes very simple, in fact, so much simplified that 
were there no other argument, this would be sufficient to> 
recommend the practice of cutting the queen's wing. 
Now, if several swarms cluster together, we have not 
to separate them, they will separate of themselves and 
return to their old home. To migrate without the queen 
means death, and life is sweet even to bees, and is not 
to be willingly given up except for home and kin- 
dred. Neither has the apiarist to climb trees, to secure his 
bees from bushy trunks, from off the lattice-work or pickets 
of his fence, from the very top of a tall, slender, fragile fruit 
tree, or other most inconvenient places. Nor will he even 
be tempted to pay his money for patent hivers. He knows 
his bees will return to their old quarters, so he is not 
perturbed by the fear of loss, or plans to capture the unap- 
proachable. It requires no effort " to possess his soul in 
patience." If he wishes no increase, he steps out, takes 
the queen by the remaining wings, as she emerges from 
the hive, soon after the bees commence their hilarious leave- 
taking, puts her in a cage, opens the hive, destroys, or, if he 
wishes to use them, cuts out the queen cells as already 
described (page 167), gives more room — either by adding 
boxes or taking out some of the frames of brood, as they may 
well be spared, places the cage enclosing the queen under the 
quilt, and leaves the bees to return at their pleasure. At 
night-fall the queen is liberated, and very likely the swarm- 
ing fever subdued for the season. 

If it is desired to hive the absconding swarm with a nucleus 
colony, exchange the places of the old hive containing the 
caged queen, and the nucleus, to which the swarm will then 
come. Remove queen-cells from the old hives as before, give 
some of the combs of brood to the nucleus, which is now a 
full colony, and empty frames, with comb or foundation 
starters, or, if you have them, empty combs to both, liberate 
the queen at night and all is well, and the apiarist rejoices in 
a new colony. If the apiarist has neglected to form nuclei, 
and so has no extra queens — and this is a neglect — and 
wishes to hive his swarm separately, he places his caged queen 
in an empty hive, with which he replaces the old hive till the 
bees return, then this new hive, with queen and bees, and, 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 173 

still better, with a frame or two of brood, honey, etc., in the 
middle, which were taken from the old hive, is set on a new 
stand. The old hive, with all the queen-cells except the largest 
and finest one removed, is set back, so that the apiarist has 
forestalled the issue of after-swarms, except that other queen- 
cells are afterward started, which is not likely to happen. 
The old queen is liberated as before, and we are in the way 
of soon having two good colonies. Some apiarists cage the 
queen and let the bees return, then divide the colony as soon 
to be described. 

Some extensive apiarists, who desire to prevent increase of 
'colonies, cage the old queen, destroy cells, and exchange this 
hive — after taking out three or four frames of brood to 
strengthen nuclei — with one that recently swarmed. Thus 
a colony that recently sent out a swarm, but retained their 
queen, has probably, from the decrease of bees, loss of brood 
and removal of queen-cells, lost the swarming fever, and if we 
give them plenty of room and ventilation, they will accept the 
bees from a new swarm, and spend their future energies in 
storing honey. Southard and Ranney have been very suc- 
cessful in the practice of this method. If building of drone- 
comb in the empty frames which replaced the brood-frames 
removed, should vex the apiarist — Dr. Southard says they had 
no such trouble — it could be prevented by giving worker- 
foundation. If the swarming fever is not broken up, we 
shall only have to repeat the operation again in a few days. 

HIVING SWARMS. 

But in clipping wings, some queens may be omitted, or from 
taste, or other motive, some bee-keepers may not desire to "de- 
form her royal highness." Then the apiarist must possess the 
means to save the would-be rovers. The means are good 
hives in readiness, some kind of a brush — a turkey-wing will 
do — and a bag or basket, with eve'r open top, which should be 
at least eighteen inches in diameter, and this receptacle so 
made that it may be attached to the end of a pole, and two 
such poles, one very long and the other of medium length. 

Now, let us attend to the method : As soon as the cluster 
commences to form, place the hive on the ground near by, 
leaving the entrance widely open, which with our bottom- 



174 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

board only requires that we draw the hive forward an inch or 
more over the alighting-board. As soon as the bees are fully 
clustered, we must manage as best we can to empty the whole 
cluster in front of the hive. As the bees are full of honey 
we need have little fear of stings. Should the bees be on a 
twig that could be sacrificed, this might be easily cut off with 
either a knife or saw, and so carefully as hardly to disturb 
the bees ; then carry and shake the bees in front of the hive, 
when with joyful hum they will at once proceed to enter. If 
the twig must not be cut, shake them all into the basket, and 
empty before the hive. Should they be on a tree trunk, or a 
fence, then brush them with the wing into the basket, and 
proceed as before. If they are high up on a tree, take the 
pole and basket, and perhaps a ladder will also be necessary. 
Always let ingenuity have its perfect work, not for- 
getting that the object to be gained is to get just as many of 
the bees as is possible on the alighting-board in front of the 
hive. Carelessness as to the quantity might involve the loss 
of the queen, which would oe serious. The bees will not 
remain unless the queen enters the hive. Should a cluster 
form where it is impossible to brush or shake them off", they 
can be driven into a basket, or hive, by holding it above them 
and blowing smoke among them. As soon as they are 
nearly all in — a few may be flying around, but if the queen 
is in the new hive, they will go back to their old home, or 
find the new one — which Mr. Betsinger says they will always 
do, if it is not far removed — remove the hive to its permanent 
stand. All washes are more than useless. ' It is better 
that the hive be clean and pure. With such, if they are 
shaded, bees will generally be satisfied. But assurance 
will be made doubly sure by giving them a frame 
of brood, in all stages of growth, from the old hive. 
This may be inserted before the work of hiving is 
commenced. Mr. Betsinger thinks this will cause them to 
leave ; but I think he will not be sustained by the experience 
of. other apiarists. He certainly is not by mine. I never 
knew but one colony to leave uncapped brood ; I have often 
known them to swarm out of an empty hive once or twice,, 
and to be returned, after brood had been placed in the hive r 
when they accepted the changed conditions, and went at once 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 175: 

to work. This seems reasonable, too, in view of the attach- 
ment of bees for their nest of brood, as also from analogy. 
How eager the ant to convey her larvae and pupae — the so- 
called eggs — to a place of safety, when the nest has been 
invaded and danger threatens, Bees doubtless have the same 
desire to protect their young, and as they cannot carry them 
away to a new home, they remain to care for them in one that 
may not be quite to their taste. 

If it is not desired to increase, the bees may be given to a 
colony which has previously swarmed, after removing from 
the latter all queen-cells, and adding to the room by giving 
boxes and removing some frames of brood to strengthen 
nuclei. This plan is practiced by Dr. Southard. We may even 
return the bees to their old home by taking the same pre- 
cautionary measures, with a good hope that storing and not 
swarming will engage their attention in future ; and if we 
exchange their position with that of a nucleus, we shall be 
still more likely to succed in overcoming the desire to swarm ; 
though some seasons, usually when honey is being gathered 
each day for long intervals, but not in large quantities, 
the desire and determination of some colonies to swarm is im- 
placable. Room, ventilation, changed position of hive, each 
and all will fail. Then we can do no better than to gratify 
the propensity, by giving the swarm a new home, and make 
an effort 

TO PREVENT SECOND SWARMS. 

As already stated, the wise apiarist will always have on 
hand extra queens. Now, if he does not desire to form nuclei 
(as already explained), and thus use these queen cells, he will at 
once cut them all out, and destroy them, and give the old 
colony a fertile queen. The method of introduction will be 
given hereafter, though in such cases there is very little danger 
incurred by giving them a queen at once. And by thoroughly 
smoking the bees, and sprinkling with sweetened water, and 
daubing the new queen with honey, we may be almost sure of 
success. If desired, the queen-cells can be used in forming 
nuclei, in manner before described. In this way we save our 
colony from being without a fertile queen for at least thirteen' 
days, and that, too, in the very height of the honey season, 



176 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

when time is money. If extra queens are wanting, we have 
only to look carefully through the old hive and remove all 
but one of the queen-cells. A little care will certainly make 
sure work, as, after swarming, the old hive is so thinned of 
bees, that only carelessness will overlook queen-cells in such 
a quest. 

TO PREVENT SWARMING. 

As yet we can only partly avert swarming. Mr. Quinby 
offered a large reward for a perfect non-swarming hive, and 
never had to make the payment. Mr. Hazen attempted it, 
and partially succeeded, by granting much space to the bees, 
so that they should not be impelled to vacate for lack of room. 
The Quinby hive already described, by the large capability of 
the brood-chamber, and ample opportunity for top and side- 
storing, looks to the same end. But we may safely say that 
a perfect non-swarming hive or system is not yet before the 
bee-keeping public. The best aids toward non-swarming 
are shade, ventilation, and roomy hives. But as we shall 
see in the sequel, much room in the brood-chamber, un- 
less we work for extracted honey — by which means we 
may greatly repress the swarming fever — prevents our 
obtaining honey in a desirable style. If we add sections, 
unless the connection is quite free — in which case 
the queen is apt to enter them and greatly vex us — we must 
crowd some to send the bees into the sections. Such crowd- 
ing is almost sure to lead to swarming. I have, by abrading 
the combs of capped honey in the brood-chamber, as suggested 
to me by Mr. M. M. Baldridge — causing the honey to run 
down from the combs — sent the bees crowding to the sections, 
and thus deferred or prevented swarming. 

It is possible that by extracting freely when storing is very 
rapid, and then by rapidly feeding the extracted honey in the 
interims of honey secretion, we might prevent swarming, 
secure very rapid breeding, and still get our honey in sections. 
Too few experiments, to be at all decisive, have led me to look 
favorably in this direction. 

The keeping of colonies queenless, in order to secure honey 
without increase, as practiced and advised by some even of 
our distinguished apiarists, seems to me a very questionable 



MANUAL OP THE APIARV. 177 

practice, to which I cannot even lend my approval by so much 
as detailing the method. I would rather advise : keeping a 
queen., and the workers all at wor.k in every hive, if possible, 
■all the time. 

HOW TO MULTIPLY COLONIES WITH THE BEST RESULTS. 

We have already seen the evils of natural swarming, 
for, even though no stock is too much reduced in numbers, 
mo colony lost by not receiving prompt attention, no Sunday 
quiet disturbed, and no time wasted in anxious watching, yet, 
at best, the old colony is queenless for about two weeks, a 
Mate of things which no apiarist can or should afford. 
The true policy then is to practice artificiql swarming, as 
just described, where we save time by cutting the queen's 
wing, and save loss by permitting no colony to remain queen- 
less, or still better to 

DIVIDE. 

This method will secure uniform colonies, will increase our 
number of colonies just to our liking, will save time, and that, 
too, when time is most valuable, and is in every respect safer and 
preferable to swarming. I have practiced dividing ever since 
I have kept bees, and never will tout the best results. 

HOW TO DIVIDE. 

By the process already described, we have secured a goodly 
number of fine queens, which will be in readiness at the 
needed time. Now, as soon as the white clover harvest is 
well commenced, early in June, we may commence operations. 
If we have but one colony to divide, it is well to wait till they 
become pretty populous, but not till they swarm. Take one 
•of our waiting hives, which now holds a nucleus with fertile 
queen, and remove the same close along side the colony we 
wish to divide. This must only be done on warm days when 
the bees are active, and better be done, while the bees are 
busy, in the middle of the day. Remove the division-board 
of the new hive, and then remove five combs, well loaded with 
brood, and of course containing some honey, from the old 
colony, bees and all, to the new hive. Also take the remain- 
ing frames and shake the bees into the new hive. Only be sure 
that the queen still remains in the old hive. Fill both the 



178 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

hives with empty frames- — if the frames are rilled with empty- 
comb it will be still better, if not it will pay to give starters 
or full frames of foundation— and return the new hive to its- 
former position. The old bees will return to the old colony, 
while the young ones will remain peaceably with the new 
queen. The old colony will now contain at least seven frames 
of brood, honey, etc., the old queen, and plenty of bees, so 
that they will work on as though naught had transpired, 
though perhaps moved to a little harder effort by the added 
space and five empty frames. The empty frames may be all 
placed at one end, or placed between the others, though not 
so as to divide brood. 

The new colony will have eight frames of brood, comb, etc., 
three from the nucleus and five from the old colony, a young 
fertile queen, plenty of bees, those of the previous nucleus 
and the young bees from the old colony, and will work with 
a surprising vigor, often even eclipsing the old colony. 

If the apiarist has several colonies, it is better to make 
the new colony from several old colonies, as follows : Take 
one frame of brood-comb from each of six old colonies, or two- 
from each of three, and carry them, bees and all, and place 
with the nucleus. Only, be sure that no queen is removed. 
Fill all the hives with empty combs, or foundation instead of 
frames, as before. In this way we increase without in the 
least disturbing any of the colonies, and may add a colony 
every day or two, or perhaps several, depending on the size of 
our apiary, and can thus always, so my experience says, pre- 
vent swarming. 

By taking only brood that is all capped, we can safely add 
one or two frames to each nucleus every week, without adding 
any bees, as there would be no danger of loss by chilling the 
brood. In this way, as we remove no bees, we have to spend 
no time in looking for the queen, and may build up our nuclei 
into full stocks, and keep back the swarming impulse with 
great facility. 

These are unquestionably the best methods to divide, and 
so I will not complicate the subject by detailing others. The 
only objection that can be urged against them, and even this 
does not apply to the last, is that we must seek out the queen 
in each hive, or at least be sure that we do not remove her r 
though this is by no means so tedious if we have Italians, as 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 179 

of course we all will. I might give other methods which 
would render unnecessary this caution, but they are to my 
mind inferior, and not to be recommended. If we proceed as 
above described, the bees will seldom prepare to swarm at all, 
and if they do they will be discovered in the act, by such fre- 
quent examinations, and the work may be cut short by at 
once dividing such colonies as first explained, and destroying 
their queen-cells, or, if desired, using them for forming new 
nuclei. 



180 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



CHAPTER XL 
ITALIANS AND ITALIANIZING. 

The history and description of Italians (see Frontis-piece) 
have already been considered (p. 41), so it only remains to 
discuss the subject in a practical light. 

The superiority of the Italians seems at present a mooted 
question. A few among the able apiarists in our country 
take the ground that a thorough balancing of qualities will 
make as favorable a showing for the German, as for the Ital- 
ian bees. I think, too, that the late Baron of Berlepsch held 
to the same view. 

I think I am capable of acting as judge on this subject. 
I have never sold a half-dozen queens in my life, and so have 
not been unconsciously influenced by self-interest. In fact, 
I have never had, if I except two years, any direct interest 
in bees at all, and all my work and experiments had only the 
promotion and spread of truth as the ultimatum. 

Again, I have kept both blacks and Italians side by side, 
and carefully observed and noted results during eight years 
of my experience. I have carefully collected data as to in- 
crease of brood, rapidity of storing, early and late habits in 
the day and season, kinds of flowers visited, amiability, etc., 
and I believe that to say that they are not superior to black 
bees, is like saying that a Duchess among short-horns is in no 
wise superior to the lean, bony kine of Texas ; or that our 
Essex and Berkshire swine are no whit better than the cadav- 
erous lank breeds, with infinite noses, that, happily, are now 
so rare among us. The Italians are far superior to the Ger- 
man bees in many respects, and more — though I am acquainted 
with all the works on apiculture printed in our language, and 
Iiave an extensive acquaintance with the leading apiarists of 
our country from Maine to California, yet I know of scarcely 
a baker's dozen that have had opportunity to form a correct 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 181 

judgment, that do not give strong preference to the Italians. 
That these men are honest, is beyond question ; that those 
who disagree with us are equally so, there is no doubt. The 
black bees are in some respects superior to the Italians, and 
if a bee-keeper's methods cause him to give these points undue 
importance, in forming his judgments, then his conclusions 
may be wrong. Faulty management, too, may lead to wrong 
conclusions. 

The Italians certainly possess the following points of supe- 
riority : 

First. They possess longer tongues (Fig. 20), and so can 
gather from flowers which are useless to the black bee. This 
point has already been sufficiently considered (p. 42). How 
much value hangs upon this structural peculiarity, I am unable 
to state. I have frequently seen Italians working on red 
clover. I never saw a black bee thus employed. It is easy 
to see that this might be, at certain times and certain seasons, 
a very material aid. How much of the superior storing 
qualities of the Italians is due to this lengthened ligula, I 
am unable to say. 

Second. They are more active, and with the same oppor- 
tunities will collect a good deal more honey. This is a matter 
of observation, which I have tested over and over again. Yet 
I will give the figures of another : Mr. Doolittle secured from 
two colonies, 309 lbs. and 301 lbs., respectively, of box honey, 
during the past season. These surprising figures, the best he 
could give, were from his best Italian stocks. Similar testi- 
mony comes from Klein and Dzierzon over the sea, and from 
hosts of our own apiarists. 

Third. They work earlier and later. This is not only 
true of the day, but of the season. On cool days in spring, 
I have seen the dandelions swarming with Italians, while not 
a black bee was to be seen. On May 7th, 1877, I walked 
less than one-half a mile, and counted sixty-eight bees gath- 
ering from dandelions, yet only two were black bees. This 
might be considered an undesirable feature, as tending to 
spring dwindling. Yet, with the proper management, to be 
described while considering the subject of wintering, we think 
this no objection, but a great advantage. 

Fourth. They are far better to protect their hives against 



182 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

robbers. Robbers that attempt to plunder Italians of their 
hard-earned stores soon find that they have " dared to beard 
the lion in his den." This is so patent, that even the advo- 
cates of black bees are ready to concede it. 

Fifth. They are almost proof against the ravages of the 
bee-moth's larvas. This is also universally conceded. 

Sixth. The queens are decidedly more prolific. This is 
probably in part due to the greater and more constant activity 
of the neuters. This is observable at all seasons, but more 
especially when building up in the spring. No one who will 
take the pains to note the increase of brood will long remain 
in doubt on this point. 

Seventh. They are less apt to breed in winter, when it is 
desirable to have the bees very quiet. 

Eighth. The queen is more readily found, which is a great 
advantage. In the various manipulations of the apiary, it is 
frequently desirable to find the queen. In full colonies I 
would rather find three Italian queens than one black one. 
Where time is money, this becomes a matter of much im- 
portance. 

Ninth. The bees are more disposed to adhere to the comb 
while being handled, which some might regard a doubtful 
compliment, though I consider it a desirable quality. 

Tenth. They are, in my judgment, less liable to rob other 
bees. They will find honey when the blacks gather none, and 
the time for robbing is when there is no gathering. This may 
explain the above peculiarity. 

Eleventh. And, in my estimation, a sufficient ground for pref- 
erence, did it stand alone, the Italian bees are /"a?- more amiable. 
Years ago I got rid of my black bees, because they were so 
cross. Two years ago I got two or three colonies, that my 
students might see the difference, but to my regret ; for, as we 
removed the honey in the autumn, they seemed perfectly 
furious, like demons, seeking whom they might devour, and 
this, too, despite the smoker, while the far more numerous 
Italians were safely handled, even without smoke. The 
experiment at least satisfied a large class of students as to 
superiority. Mr. Quinby speaks in his book of their being 
cross, and Captain Hetherington tells me, that if not much 
handled, they are more cross than the blacks. From my own 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 183 

> 

experience, I cannot understand this. Hybrids are even more 
cross than are the pure black bees, but otherwise are nearly 
as desirable as the pure Italians. 

I have kept these two races side by side for years, I have 
studied them most carefully, and I feel sure that none of the 
above eleven points of excellence is too strongly stated. 

The black bees will go into close boxes more readily than 
Italians, but if we use the sectional frames, and on other 
grounds we can afford to use no other, we shall find, with 
the more ample connection between the brood-chamber and 
sections, that even here, as Mr. Doolittle and many others 
have shown, the Italians still give the best returns. 

I have some reasons to think that the blacks are more 
hardy, and have found many apiarists who agree with me. 
Yet, others of wide experience, think that there is no differ- 
ence, while still others think the Italians more hardy. 

The Italian bees are said to dwindle worse in spring, which, 
as they are more active, is quite probable. As I have never 
had a case of serious spring dwindling, I cannot speak from 
experience. If the bee-keeper prevents early spring flying, 
which is very detrimental to either black or Italian bees, this 
point will have no weight, even if well taken. 

ALL SHOULD KEEP ONLY ITALIANS. 

The advantages of the Italians, which have been considered 
thus fully, are more than sufficient to warrant the exclusion 
of all other bees from the apiary. Truly, no one need to 
be urged to a course, that adds to the ease, profit, and agree- 
ableness of his vocation. 

HOW TO ITALIANIZE. 

From what has been already explained regarding the natural 
history of bees, it will be seen that all we have to do to 
change our bees, is to change our queens. Hence, to Italian- 
ize a colony, we have only to procure and introduce an Italian 
queen. 

HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN. 

In dividing colonies, where we give our queen to a colony 
composed wholly of young bees, it is safe and easy to intro- 



18-4 MANUAL OP THE APIARY 

duce a queen in the manner explained in the section on artificial 
swarming. To introduce a queen to a colony composed of old 
bees more care is required. First, we should seek out the old 
queen and destroy her, then cage our Italian queen in a wire 
cage, which may be made by winding a strip of wire-cloth, three 
and one-half inches wide, and containing fifteen to twenty 
meshes to the inch, about the finger. Let it lap each way 
one-half inch, then cut it off. Ravel out the half inch on 
each side, and weave in the ends of the wires, forming a tube 
the size of the finger. We now have only to put the queen in 
the tube, and pinch the ends together, and the queen is caged. 
The cage containing the queen should be inserted between two 
adjacent combs containing honey, each of which will touch it. 
The queen can thus sip honey as she needs it. If we fear the 
queen may not be able to sip the honey through the meshes 
of the wire, we may dip a piece of clean sponge in honey and 
insert it in the upper end of the cage before we compress this 
end. This will furnish the queen with the needed food. In 
forty-eight hours we again open the hive, after a thorough 
smoking, also the cage, which is easily done by pressing the 
upper end, at right-angles to the direction of the pressure 
when we closed it. In doing this do not remove the cage. 
Now keep watch, and if, as the bees enter the cage or as the 
queen emerges, the bees attack her, secure her immediately 
and re-cage her for another forty-eight hours. I usually let 
some honey drip on the queen as soon as the cage is opened. 
Some think this renders the bees more amiable. I have 
introduced many queens in this manner, and have very rarely 
been unsuccessful. 

Mr. Dadant stops the cage with a plug of wood, and when 
he goes to liberate the qeeen replaces the wooden stop with 
one of comb, and leaves the bees to liberate the queen by 
eating out the comb. I have tried this, but with no better 
success than I have had with the above method, while with 
this plan the queen is surely lost if the bees do not receive her 
kindly. Mr. Betsinger uses a larger cage, open at one end, 
which is pi'essed against the comb till the mouth of the cage 
reaches the middle of it. If I understand him, the queen is 
thus held by cage and comb till the bees liberate her. I have 
never tried this plan. When bees are not storing, especially 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 185 

if robbers are abundant, it is more difficult to succeed, and at 
such time the utmost caution will occasionally fail of success 
if the bees are old. 

A young queen, just emerging from a cell, can almost always 
be safely given at once to the colony, after destroying the old 
queen. 

A queen cell is usually received with favor. If we adopt 
this course we must be careful to destroy all other queen- 
cells that may be formed ; and if the one we supply is de- 
stroyed, wait seven days, then destroy all their queen-cells, 
and they are sure to accept a cell. But to save time I should 
always introduce a queen. 

If we are to introduce an imported queen, or one of very 
great value, we might make a new colony, all of young bees, 
as already described. Smoke them well, sprinkle with 
sweetened water, daub the queen with honey, and introduce 
immediately. This method would involve really no risk. If 
the apiarist was still afraid, he could make assurance still 
more sure by taking combs of brood where the young bees 
were rapidly escaping from the cells ; there would soon be 
enough young bees to cluster about the queen, and soon 
enough bees for a good colony. This plan would not be advi- 
sable except in warm weather, and care is also required to pro- 
tect from robbers. The colony might be set in the cellar for 
a few days, in which case it would be safe even in early spring. 

By having a colony thus Italianized in the fall, we may 
commence the next spring, and, as described in the section 
explaining the formation of artificial swarms, we may control 
our rearing of drones, queens, and all, and ere another autumn 
have only the beautiful, pure, amiable, and active Italians. 
I have done this several times, and with the most perfect sat- 
isfaction. I think by making this change in blood, we add 
certainly two dollars to the value of each colony, and I know 
of no other way to make money so easily and pleasantly. 

TO GET OTJR ITALIAN QUEEN. 

Send to some reliable breeder, and ask for a queen worth 
at least five dollars. It is the mania now to rear and sell 
cheap queens. These are reared — must be reared — without 
care, and will, I fear, prove very cheap. It is a question, if 



186 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

any more sure way could be devised to injure our colonies 
than the dollar queen business, which has for some years 
been so extensive. It is quite probable that much of the 
superiority of Italian bees is owing to the careful and judi- 
cious selection in breeding. Such careful selection in breed- 
ing, either with black or Italian bees, is what will augment 
the value of our apiaries. 

The tendency of the dollar queen business is to dissemi- 
nate the inferior queens, many of which will appear in every 
apiary. These should be killed, not sold. Yet, many an 
apiarist will think even the poorest queens are worth a dollar. 
My friend, Mrs. Baker, bought a dollar "Albino " queen last 
season which was not worth a cent. Yet it cost only a dollar, 
and, of course, no satisfaction could be secured or even asked 
for. I think it behooves apiarists to reflect on this matter, 
and see if dollar queens are not very dear. I have thrown 
away three dollars on them, and have concluded to pay more 
and buy cheaper in future. 

I believe our queen-breeders should be encouraged to give 
us the best ; to study the art of breeding, and never send 
out an inferior queen. In this way we may hope to keep 
up the character of our apiaries, and the reputation of 
Italians. Else we are safer under the old system where 
'•natural selection" retained the best, by the "survival of 
the fittest." 

REARING AND SHIPPING QUEENS. 

I have already explained the matter of queen-rearing. 
After many inquiries, and some experience, I much doubt if 
any apiarist can afford to rear queens, such as apiarists wish 
to buy, for less than four or five dollars. Only the best 
should be sold, and no pains should be spared by the breeder 
to secure such queens. 

TO SHIP QUEENS. 

This is a very simple matter. We have only to secure a 
square block two inches each way, and one and a half inches 
deep — a hole bored into a two-inch plank to within a quarter 
of an inch of the bottom serves admirably. 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



187 




We now cover the open chamber with fine wire-cloth, put 
in our queen and fifteen or twenty bees, and she is ready to 
ship. Any uncapped honey to daub the queen is almost sure 
to prove fatal. When it is desirable to send queens by mail, 
it will be necessary to provision the cage with sugar or candy, 
and cover with two pieces of wire gauze separated by at 

Fig. 57. 



■ gBff yg 

Hljr 

least one-fourth of an inch (Fig. 57) ; then queens can be sent 
by mail, to all sections of our country, for three cents each. 
No one should presume, on any account, to send a queen by 
mail, unless the queen-cage is covered by this double screen, 
and is provisioned with sugar instead of honey. If shippers 
neglect these precautions, and the mails become daubed, or 
the mail agents stung, we shall again lose the privilege of 
sending queens by mail. Such an order will in future be 
beyond recall, hence any carelessness that endangers this 
privilege will be virtually criminal. If it is thought neces- 
sary to place vials of water in cages when shipping long- 
distances, the bees must be sent by express, as such packages 
are not mailable. 

TO MOVE COLONIES. 

Should we desire to purchase Italian or other colonies, the 
only requisites to safe transport are : A wire-cloth cover for 
ventilation, secure fastening of the frames so they cannot 
possibly move, and combs old enough so that they shall not 
break down and fall out. I would never advise moving bees 
in winter, though it has often been done with entire safety. 
I should wish the bees to have a flight very soon after such 
disturbance. 



188 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



CHAPTER XII. 

EXTRACTING, AND THE EXTRACTOR. 

The brood-chamber is often so filled with honey that the 
queen has no room to lay her eggs, especially if there is any 
neglect to give other room for storing. Honey, too, in brood- 
combs is unsalable, because the combs are dark, and the size 
undesirable. Comb, too, is very valuable, and should never 
be taken from the bees, except when desired to render the 
honey more marketable. Hence, the apiarist finds a very 
efficient auxiliary in the 

HONEY EXTRACTOR. 

No doubt some have expected and claimed too much 
for this machine. It is equally true, that some have blun- 
dered quite as seriously in an opposite direction. For, since 
Mr. Langstroth gave the movable frame to the world, the 
apiarist has not been so deeply indebted to any inventor as to 
him who gave us the Mell Extractor, Hcrr von Hruschka, of 
Germany. Even if there was no sale for extracted honey — 
aye, more, even if it must be thrown away, which will never 
be necessary, as it may always be fed to the bees with profit, 
even then I would pronounce the extractor an invaluable aid 
to every bee-keeper. 

The principle which makes this machine effective is that of 
centrifugal force, and it was suggested to Major von 
Hruschka, by noticing that a piece of comb which was twirled 
by his boy at the end of a string, was emptied of its honey. 
Herr von Hruschka's machine was essentially like those now 
so common, though in lightness and convenience there has 
been a marked improvement. His machine consisted of a 
wooden tub, with a vertical axle in the centre, which revolved 
.in a socket fastened to the bottom of the vessel, while from the 
top of the tub, fastenings extended to the axle, which projected 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



189 



for a distance above. The axle was thus held exactly in the 
centre of the tub. Attached to the axle was a frame or rack 
to hold the comb, whose outer face rested against a wire-cloth. 
The axle with its attached frame, which latter held the 
uncapped comb, was made to revolve by rapidly unwinding a 
string, which had been previously wound about the top of the 
axle, after the manner of top-spinning. Replace the wooden 
tub with one of tin, and the string with gearing, and it will 
be seen that we have essentially the neat extractor of to-day. 
The machine is of foreign invention, and is not covered by a 
patent, and so may be made by any one who desires to do so. 

Fig. 58. 




The first American honey extractor was that made by Mr. 
Peabody (Fig. 58). This was without gearing, and served 
admirably in its day, but this has since been greatly improved, 
till now we have a great variety of machines, each with its 
special excellencies, and all effecting the desired results with 
more or less ease and rapidity. 

DESIRABLE POINTS IN AN EXTRACTOR. 

The machine should be as light as is consistent wiljh 
strength. It is desirable that the can be made of tin, as it 
will be neater, and more easily kept sweet and clean. The 



190 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



can should be stationary, so that only a light frame shall 
revolve with the comb. It is desirable that the machine 
should run with gearing, not only for ease, but also 
to insure or allow an even motion, so that we need not throw 
even drone larvae from the brood-cells. The arrangement for 
exit of the honey should permit a speedy and perfect shut- 
off. A molasses gate is excellent to serve for a faucet. I also 
prefer that the can should hold 30 or 40 pounds of honey be- 
fore it would be necessary to let the honey flow from it. 

In case of small frames, like the ones I have described as 
most desirable to my mind, I should prefer that the comb bas- 
ket might hold four frames. The comb basket should be 
placed so low in the can that no honey will be thrown over 
the top to daub the person using the extractor. I think that 
Fig. 59. 





a wire attachment with a tin bottom (Fig. 59, a, b) and made 
to hook on to the comb basket, which will hold pieces of comb 
not in frames, a desirable improvement to an extractor. 

I have tried machines where the sides of the comb basket 
inclined down and in, for the purpose of holding pieces of 
comb, but found them unsatisfactory. The combs would not 
be sustained. Yet, if the frames were long and narrow, so 
that the end of the frame would have to rest on the bottom 
of the comb basket, instead of hanging as it does in the hive, 
such an incline might be of use to prevent the top of the 
frame from falling in, before we commence to turn the ma- 
chine. Of course, with such comb baskets, there would be 
less centrifugal force at the bottom than at the top of the 
comb, making it more difficult to avoid throwing out the larval 
bees, in extracting from combs containing uncapped brood. 

The inside, if metal, which is lighter and to be preferred 
to wood, as it does not sour or absorb the honey, should be 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 191 

either of tin or galvanized iron, so as not to rust. A cover 
to protect the honey from dust, when not in use, is very- 
desirable. The cloth cover, gathered around the edge by a 
rubber, as made by Mr. A. I. Koot, is excellent for thi& 
purpose. As no capped honey could be extracted, it is necessary 
to uncap it, which is done by shaving off the thin caps. To do 

Fig. 60. 




this, nothing is better than the new Bingham & Hetherington 
honey knife (Fig. 60). After a thorough trial of this knife, 
here at the College, we pronounce it decidedly superior to 
any other that we have used, though we have several of the 
principal knives made in the United States. It is, perhaps, 

Fig. 61. 




sometimes desirable to have a curved point (Fig. 61), though 
this is not at all essential. 

USE OF THE EXTRACTOR. 

Although some of our most experienced apiarists say nay, 
it is nevertheless a fact, that the queen often remains idle, or 
extrudes her eggs only to be lost, simply because there are no 
empty cells. The honey yield is so great that the workers 
occupy every available space, and sometimes even they become 
unwilling idlers, simply because of necessity. Seldom a year 
has passed but that I have noticed some of my most prolific 
queens thus checked in duty. It is probable that just the 
proper arrangement and best management of frames for sur- 
plus would make such occasions rare ; yet, I have seen the 
brood-chamber in two-story hives, with common frames above 
— the very best arrangement to promote storing above the 
brood-chamber — so crowded as to force the queen either to idle- 



192 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

ness or to egg-laying in the upper frames. This fact, as also 
the redundant brood, and excessive storing that follows upon 
extracting from the brood-chamber, make me emphatic upon 
this point, notwithstanding the fact that some men of wide 
experience and great intelligence, think me wrong. 

The extractor also enables the apiarist to secure honey- 
extracted honey— in poor seasons, when he could get very 
little, if any, in sections or boxes. 

By use of the extractor, at any time or season, the 
apiarist can secure nearly if not quite double the amount of 
honey, that he could get in combs. 

The extractor enables us to remove uncapped honey in the 
fall, which, if left in the hive, may cause disease and death. 

By use of the extractor, too, we can throw the honey from 
our surplus brood-combs in, the fall, and thus have a salable 
article, and have the empty combs, which are invaluable for 
use the next spring. We now have in our apiary one hundred 
and fifty such empty combs. 

If the revolving racks of the extractor have a wire basket 
attachment, at the bottom as I have suggested, the uncapped 
sections can be emptied in the fall, if desired, and pieces of 
drone-comb cut from the brood-chamber, which are so admir- 
able for starters in the sections, can be emptied of their honey 
at any season. 

By use of the extractor, we can furnish at one-half the 
price we ask for comb-honey, an article which is equal, if not 
superior, to the best comb-honey, and which, were it not for 
appearance alone, would soon drive the latter from the market. 

WHEN TO USE THE EXTRACTOR. 

If extracted honey can be sold for fifteen, or even twelve 
cents, the extractor may be used profitably the summer 
through ; otherwise use it sufficiently often that there may 
always be empty worker-cells iti the brood-chamber. 

It is often required with us during the three great 
honey harvests — the white clover, basswood, and that of fall 
flowers. I have always extracted the honey so frequently as 
to avoid much uncapping. If the honey was thin, I would 
keep it in a dry warm room, or apply a mild heat, that it 
might thicken, and escape danger from fermentation. Yet, 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 193 

so many have sustained a loss by extracting prematurely, that 
I urge all never to extract till after the bees have sealed the 
cells. The labor of uncapping, with the exellent honey 
knives now at our command, is so light, that we can afford to 
run no risk that the honey produced at our apiaries shall sour 
and become worthless. 

If the honey granulates, it can be reduced to the fluid state 
with no injury, by heating, though the temperature should 
never rise above 200° F, This can best be done by placing 
the vessel containing the honey in another containing water, 
though if the second vessel be set on a- stove, a tin basin or 
pieces of wood should prevent the honey vessel from touching 
the bottom, else the honey would burn. As before stated, the 
best honey is always sure to crystallize, but it may be pre- 
vented by keeping it in a temperature which is constantly 
above 80° F. If canned honey is set on top a furnace in which 
a fire is kept burning, it will remain liquid indefinitely. 

To render the honey free from small pieces of comb, or 
-other impurities, it should either be passed through a cloth 
or wire sieve — I purposely refrain from the use of the word 
strainer, as we should neither use the word strained, nor allow 
it to be used, in connection with extracted honey — or else 
draw it off into a barrel, with a faucet or molasses gate near 
the lower end, and after all particles of solid matter have 
risen" to the top, draw off the clear honey from the bottom. 
In case of very thick honey, this method is not so satisfactory 
as the first. I hardly need say that honey, when heated, is 
thinner, and will of course pass more readily through common 
toweling or fine wire-cloth. 

Never allow the queen to be forced to idleness for want of 
empty cells. Extract all uncapped honey in the fall, and the 
honey from all the brood-combs not needed for winter. The 
honey, too, should be thrown from pieces of drone-comb which 
are cut from the brood-frames, and from the uncapped comb 
in sections at the close of the season. 

HOW TO EXTRACT. 

The apiarist should possess one or two light boxes, of suffi- 
cient size to hold all the frames from a single hive. These 
should have convenient handles, and a close-fitting cover, 



194 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

which will slide easily either way. These will be more easily 
used if they rest on legs, which will raise their tops say three 
feet from the ground. Now, go to two or three colonies, take 
enough combs, and of the right kind for a colony. The bees 
may be shaken off or brushed off with a large feather. If 
the bees are troublesome, close the box as soon as each comb 
is placed inside. Extract the honey from these, using care 
not to turn so hard as to throw out the brood. If necessary, 
with a thin knife pare off the caps, and after throwing the 
honey from one side, turn the comb around, and extract it 
from the other. If combs are of very different weights, it will 
be better for the extractor to use those of nearly equal weights 
on opposite sides, as the strain will be much less. Now take 
these combs to another colony, whose combs shall be replaced 
by them. Then, close the hive, extract this second set of 
combs, and thus proceed till the honey has all been extracted. 
At the close, the one or two colonies from which the first 
combs were taken shall receive pay from the last set extracted, 
and thus, with much saving of time, little disturbance of bees, 
and the least invitation to robbing, in case there is no gath- 
ering, we have gone rapidly through the apiary. 

TO KEEP EXTRACTED HONEY. 

Extracted honey, if to be sold in cans or bottles, may be run 
into them from the extractor. The honey should be thick, 
and the vessels may be sealed or corked, and boxed at once. 

If large quantities of honey are extracted, it may be most 
conveniently kept in barrels. These should be first-class, and 
ought to be waxed before using them, to make assurance 
doubly sure against any leakage. To wax the barrels, we may 
use beeswax, but paraffine is cheaper, and just as efficient. 
Three or four quarts of the hot paraffine or wax should be 
turned into the barrel, the bung driven in tight, the barrel 
twirled in every position, after which the bung is loosened by 
a blow with the hammer, and the residue of the wax turned 
out. Economy requires that the barrels be warm when 
waxed, so that only a thin coat will be appropriated. 

Large tin cans, waxed and soldered at the openings after 
being filled, are cheap, and may be the most desirable recep- 
tacles for extracted honey. 

Extracted honey should always be kept in dry apartments.. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 195 



CHAPTER XIII. 

HANDLING BEES. 

But some one asks the question, shall we not receive those 
merciless stings, or be introduced to what "Josh" calls the 
" business end of the bee ?" Perhaps there is no more cause- 
less, or more common dread, in existence, than this of bees' 
stings. When bees are gathering, they will never sting unless 
provoked. When at the hives — especially if Italians — they 
will rarely make an attack. The common belief, too, that 
some persons are more liable to attack than others, is, I think, 
put too strong. With the best opportunity to judge, with 
our hundreds of students, I think I may safely say that one 
is almost always as liable to attack as another, except that 
he is more quiet, or does not greet the usually amiable 
passer-by, with those terrific thrusts, which would vanquish 
even a practiced pugilist. Occasionally a person may have, 
a peculiar odor about his person that angers bees and invites 
their darting tilts, with drawn swords, venom-tipped, yet, 
though I take my large classes each season, at frequent inter- 
vals, to see and handle the bees, each for himself, I still await 
the first proof of the fact, that one person is more liable to 
be stung than another, providing each carries himself with 
that composed and dignified bearing, that is so pleasing to the 
bees. True, some people, filled with dread, and the belief that 
bees regard them with special hate and malice, are so ready 
for the battle, that they commence the strife with nervous 
head-shakes and beating of the air, and thus force the bees 
to battle, nolens volens. I believe that only such are regarded 
with special aversion by the bees. Hence, I believe that no 
one need be stung. 

Bees should never be jarred, nor irritated by quick motions. 
Those with nervous temperaments — and I plead very guilty 
on this point— need not give up, but at first better protect 



196 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



their faces, and perhaps even their hands, till time and expe- 
rience show them that fear is vain ; then they will divest 
themselves of all such useless encumbrances. Bees are more 
cross when they are gathering no honey, and at such times, 
black bees and hybrids, especially, are so irritable that even 
the experienced apiarist will wish a veil. 

THE BEST BEE-VEIL. 

This should be made of black tarlatan, sewed up like a 
bag, a half yard long, without top or bottom, and with a 
diameter of the rim of a common straw-hat. Gather the top 
with braid, so that it will just slip over the crown of the hat — ■ 
else, sew it to the edge of the rim of some cheap, cool hat, 
in fact, I prefer this style — and gather the bottom with rubber 
cord or rubber tape, so that it may be drawn over the hat rim, 
and then over the head, as we adjust the hat. 

Some prefer to dispense with the rubber cord at the bottom 
(Fig. 62), and have the veil long so as to be gathered in by 
the coat or dress. If the black tarlatan troubles by coloring 

Fig. 62. 




the shirt or collar, the lower part may be made of white net- 
ting. When in use, the rubber cord draws the lower part 
close about the neck, or the lower part tucks within the coat 
or vest (Fig. 62), and we are safe. This kind of a veil is 



MANUAL OE THE APIARY. 197 

cool, does not impede vision at all, and can be made by any 
woman at a cost of less than twenty cents. Common buck- 
skin or sheep-skin gloves can be used, as it will scarcely pay 
to get special gloves for the purpose, for the most timid per- 
son — I speak from experience — will soon consider gloves an 
unnecessary nuisance. 

Special rubber gloves are sold by those who keep on hand 
apiarian supplies. 

Some apiarists think that dark clothing is specially ob- 
noxious to bees. 

For ladies, my friend, Mrs. Baker, recommends a dress 
which, by use of the rubber skirt-lift or other device, can be 
instantly raised or lowered. This will be convenient in the 
apiary, and tidy anywhere. The Gabrielle style is preferred, 
and of a length just to reach the floor. It should be belted 
at the waist, and cut down from the neck in front, one-third 
the length of the waist, to permit the tucking in of the veil. 
The under-waist should fasten close about the neck. The 
sleeves should be quite long to allow free use of the arms, 
and gathered in with a rubber cord at the wrist, which will 
hug the rubber gauntlets or arm, and prevent bees from crawl- 
ing up the sleeves. The pantalets should be straight and 
full, and should also have the rubber cord in the hem to draw 
them close about the top of the shoes. 

Mrs. Baker also places great stress on the wet " head-cap," 
which she believes the men even would find a great comfort. 
This is a simple, close-fitting cap, made of two thicknesses 
of coarse toweling. The head is wet with cold water, and the 
cap wet in the same, wrung out, and placed on the head. 

Mrs. Baker would have the dress neat and clean, and so 
trimmed that the lady apiarist would ever be ready to greet 
her brother or sister apiarists. In such a dress there is no 
danger of stings, and with it there is that show of neatness 
and taste, without which no pursuit could attract the atten- 
tion, or at least the patronage, of our refined women. 

TO QUIET BEES. 

In harvest seasons, the bees, especially if Italians, can 
almost always be handled without their showing resentment. 
But at other times, and whenever they object to necessary 



198 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

familiarity, we have only to cause them to fill with honey to 
render them harmless, unless we pinch them. This can be 
done by closing the hive so that the bees cannot get out, and 
then rapping on the hive for four or five minutes. Those 
within will fill with honey, those without will be tamed by 
surprise, and all will be quiet. Sprinkling the bees with 
sweetened water will also tend to render them amiable, and 
will make them more ready to unite, to receive a queen, and 
less apt to sting. Still another method, more convenient, is to 
smoke the bees. A little smoke blown among the bees will 
scarcely ever fail to quiet them, though I have known black 
bees in autumn, to be very slow to yield. Dry cotton cloth, 
closely wound and sewed or tied, or better, pieces of dry, rotten 
wood, are excellent for the purpose of smoking. These are 
easily handled, and will burn for a long time. But best of all 
is a 

BELLOWS-SMOKER. 

This is a tin tube attached to a bellows. Cloth or rotten 
wood can be burned in the tube, and will remain burning 
a long time. The smoke can be directed at pleasure, the 
bellows easily worked, and the smoker used without any dis- 
agreeable effects or danger from fire. It can be got from any 
dealer in bee apparatus, and only costs from $1.25 to $2.00. 
I most heartily recommend it to all. 

There are two smokers in use, which I have found very 
valuable, and both of which are worthy of recommendation. 

THE QUINBY SMOKER. 

This smoker (Fig. 63, a) was a gift to bee-keepers by the 
late Mr. Quinby, and not patented ; though I supposed it was, 
and so stated in a former edition of this work. Though a 
similar device had been previously used in Europe, without 
doubt Mr. Quinby was not aware of the fact, and as he was 
the person to bring it to the notice of bee-keepers, and to 
make it so perfect as to challenge the attention and win the 
favor of apiarists instdnter, he is certainly worthy of great 
praise, and deserving of hearty gratitude. This smoker, until 
a better one appeared, was a very valuable and desirable 
instrument. Its faults were, lack of strength, too small a 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 199 

fire-tube, too little draft when not in use, so that the fire 
would go out, and too great liability to fall over on the side, 
when the fire was sure to be extinguished. Many of these 

Fig. 63. 





defects, however, have been corrected, and other improve- 
ments made in a new smoker, called the Improved Quinby 
(Fig. 63. b). 

THE BINGHAM SMOKER. 

This smoker (Fig. 64) not only meets all the requirements, 
which are wanting in the old Quinby smoker, but shows by its 

Fig. 64. 




whole construction, that it has not only as a whole, but in 
every part, been subject to the severest test, and the closest 
thought and study. 



200 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

At first sight this seems an improved copy of Mr. Quinby's- 
smoker, and so I first thought, though I only saw it in Mr. 
Bingham's hand at a Convention. I have since used it r 
examined it in every part, and have to say that it is not a 
Quinby smoker. The bellows, the valve, the cut-off, and even 
the form, are all peculiar. The special point to be commended, 
and, I suppose, the only one patentable, is the cut-off between 
the bellows and fire-tube, so that the fire seldom goes out, 
while even hard-wood, as suggested by the inventor, forms an 
excellent and ever-ready fuel. The valve for the entrance of 
air to the bellows, permits rapid work, the spring is of the 
best clock-spring material, the leather perfect, not split sheep- 
skin, while the whole construction of the bellows, and the 
plan of the fire-screen and cut-off draft, show much thought 
and ingenuity. I am thus full in this description, that I may 
not only benefit my readers, all of whom will want a smoker, 
but also out of gratitude to Mr. Bingham, who has conferred 
such a favor on American apiarists. There are three sizes, 
which may be-boughtfor $1.00, $1.50 and $1.75, respectively, 
including postage. 

Mr. Bingham, to protect himself, and preserve the quality 
of his invention, has procured a patent. This, provided he 
has only patented his own invention, is certainly his right, 
which I think honesty requires us all to respect. Like Mr. 
Langstroth, he has given us a valuable instrument ; let us see 
that he is not defrauded out of the justly earned reward for 
his invention. 

Brother apiarists, let us cease this unjust clamor against 
patents and patentees. If a man procures a patent on a 
worthless thing, let him alone, and where is the damage ? If 
a man procures a patent on a valuable and desirable invention, 
then buy it, or pay for the right to make it, and thus keep the 
Eighth and Tenth Commandments (Exodus, 20th chap., 8th 
and 1 0th verses). Let us never buy an article unless we 
know it is valuable and desirable for us, no matter how 
stoutly importuned ; but for honesty's sake, and that we may 
encourage more inventions, let us respect a man's patent as 
we would any other property. If we are in doubt as to the 
correctness of some person's claim, let us not be forced to 
pay a bonus, but first write to some candid editor or other 
authority, and if we find a man has a right to the article, then 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 201 

pay as we would any other debt. I should be very suspicious 
of any man's honesty who was not willing to respect such 
rights. 

TO SMOKE BEES. 

Approach the hive, blow a little smoke in at the entrance, 
then open from above, and blow in smoke as required. If at 
any time the bees seem irritable, a few puffs from the smoker 
will subdue them. Thus, 'any person may handle his bees 
with perfect freedom and safety. If at any time the fire- 
chamber and escape-pipe become filled with soot, they can 
easily be cleaned by revolving an iron or hard-wood stick in- 
side of them. 

TO CURE STINGS. 

In case a person is stung, he should step back a little for a 
moment, as the pungent odor of the venom is likely to anger 
the bees and induce further stinging. The sting should be 
withdrawn, and if the pain is such as to prove troublesome, 
apply a little ammonia. The venom is an acid, and is neu- 
tralized by the alkali. Pressing over the sting with the barrel 
of a watch-key is also said to be of some use in staying the 
progress of the poison in the circulation of the blood. In 
ease horses are badly stung, as sometimes happens, they 
should be taken as speedily as possible into a barn (a man, 
too, may escape angry bees by entering a building), where the 
bees will seldom follow, then wash the horses in soda water, 
and cover with blankets wet in cold water. 

THE SWEAT THEORY. 

It is often stated that sweaty horses and people are 
obnoxious to the bees, and hence, almost sure targets for their 
barbed arrows. In warm weather I perspire most profusely, 
yet am scarcely ever stung, since I have learned to control my 
nerves. I once kept my bees in the front yard — they looked 
beautiful on the green lawn — within two rods of a main 
thoroughfare, and not infrequently let my horse, covered with 
sweat upon my return from a drive, crop the grass, while cool- 
ing off, right in the same yard. Of course, there was some 
danger, but I never knew my horse to get stung. Why, then, 
the theory ? May not the more frequent stings be consequent 



202 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

upon the warm, nervous condition of the individual ? The 
man is more ready to strike and jerk, the horse to stamp and 
switch. The switching of the horse's tail, like the whisker 
trap of a full beard, will anger even a good-natured bee. I 
should dread the motions more than the sweat, though it may 
be true that there is a peculiarity in the odor from either the 
sensible or insensible perspiration of some persons, that an- 
gers the bees and provokes the use of their terrible weapons. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



203 



CHAPTER XIV. 

COMB FOUNDATION. 

Every apiarist of experience knows that empty combs in 
frames, comb-guides in the sections, to tempt the bees and to 
insure the proper position of the full combs, in fact, combs of 
almost any kind or shape, are of great importance. So every 
skillful apiarist is very careful to save all drone-comb that is 
cut out of the brood-chamber — where it is worse than useless, 
as it brings with it myriads of those useless gormands, the 
drones — to kill the eggs, remove the brood, or extract the 
honey, and to transfer it to the sections. He is equally care- 
ful to keep all his worker-comb, so long as the cells are of 
proper size to domicile full-sized larvae, and never to sell any 
comb, or even comb-honey, unless a much greater price makes 
it desirable. 

No wonder, then, if comb is so desirable, that German 
thought and Yankee ingenuity have devised means of giving 
the bees at least a start in this important, yet expensive work 

Fig. 65. 




of comb-building, and hence the origin of another great aid 
to the apiarist — comb foundation (Fig. 65). 



HISTORY. 



For more than twenty years the Germans have used im- 
pressed sheets of wax as a foundation for comb, as it was first 
made by Herr Mehring, in 1857. These sheets are four or five 
times as thick as the partition at the centre of natural comb, 



204 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

which is very thin, only 1-180 of an inch thick. This is pressed 
between metal plates so accurately formed that the wax re- 
ceives rhomboidal impressions which are a/ac simile of the 
basal wall or partition between the opposite cells of natural 
comb. The thickness of this sheet is no objection, as it is 
found that the bees almost always thin it down to the natural 
thickness, and probably use the shavings to form the walls. 

AMERICAN FOUNDATION. 

Mr. Wagner secured a patent on foundation in 1861, but as 
the article was already in use in G-ermany, the patent was, as 
we understand, of no legal value, and certainly, as it did 
nothing to bring this desirable article into use, it had no virtual 
value. Mr. Wagner was also the first to suggest the idea of 
rollers. In Langstroth's work, edition of 1859, p. 373, occurs 
the following, in reference to printing or stamping combs : 
" Mr. Wagner suggests forming these outlines with a simple 
instrument somewhat like a wheel cake cutter. When a large 
number are to be made, a machine might easily be constructed 
which would stamp them with great rapidity." In 1866, the 
King Brothers, of New York, in accordance with the above 
suggestion, invented the first machine with rollers, the pro- 
duct of which they tried but failed to get patented. These 
stamped rollers were less than two inches long. This machine 
was useloss, and failed to bring foundation into general use. 

In 1874, Mr. Frederick Weiss, a poor German, invented the 
machine which brought the foundation into general use. His 
machine had lengthened rollers — they being six inches long — 
and shallow grooves between the pyramidal projections, so 
that there was a very shallow cell raised from the basal im- 
pression as left by the G-erman plates. This was the machine 
on which was made the beautiful and practical foundation 
sent out by "John Long,'' in 1874 and 1875, and which proved 
to the American apiarists that foundation machines, and foun- 
dation, too, were to be a success. I used some of this early 
foundation, and have been no more successful with that made 
by the machines of to-day. To Frederick Wess, then, are 
Americans and the world indebted for this invaluable aid to 
the apiarist. Yet, the poor old man has, I fear, received 
very meager profits from this great invention, while some 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



205 



writers ignore his services entirely, not granting him the poor 
meed of the honor. Since that time many machines have 
been made, without even a thank you, as I believe, to this 
•old man, Weiss. Does not this show that patents, or some- 
thing — a higher morality, if you please— is necessary, that 
men may secure justice ? True, faulty foundation, and faulty 
machines were already in use, but it was the inventive skill 
•of Mr. Weiss that made foundation cheap and excellent, 
and thus popularized it with the American apiarists. 

These Weiss machines turn out the comb-foundation 
not only of exquisite mold, but with such rapidity that it can 
be made cheap and practicable. Heretofore these machines 

Fig. 66. 




jUByiimmm^ 



have been sold at an enormous profit. Last November, 1877, 
I expostulated with one of the manufacturers of American 
machines, because of the high price, saying, as I looked at 
•one of the machines : These ought to be sold for thirty or 
forty dollars, instead of one hundred dollars. He replied 
that such machines — with rollers, not plates — that gave the 
foundation the exact figure of natural comb, were only made, 
he thought, by the person who made his machines, and thus 
•convinced me that said person should be rewarded, amply 
rewarded, for his invention. But as I have since learned 
that this is only the Weiss machine, and does no more perfect 
work, I now think Mr. Weiss should receive the super-extra 
profits. Even with machines at one hundred dollars, founda- 



•206 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY 



tion was profitable, as I with many others have found. But 
with the present price — forty dollars, which I think, judging 
from the simplicity of the machine, advertised at that price 
(Fig. 66), must be reduced still lower — we can hardly conceive 
what an immense business this is soon to become. 

HOW FOUNDATION IS MADE. 

The process of making the foundation is very simple. 
Thin sheets of wax, as thin as is consistent with strength, are 
simply passed between the rollers, which are so made as to 
stamp worker or drone foundation, as may be desired. The 
rollers are well covered with starch-water to secure against 
adhesion. Two men can roll out about four hundred pounds 
per day. 

TO SECURE THE WAX SHEETS. 

To make the thin sheets of wax, Mr. A. I. Root takes sheets 
or plates of galvanized iron with a wooden handle. These are 
cooled by dipping in ice-water, and then are dipped two, or 
three times if the wax is very hot, in the melted wax, which 
is maintained at the proper temperature by keeping it in a 
double-walled vessel, with hot water in the outer chamber. 

Fig. 67. 





Such a boiler, too, prevents burning of the wax, which would 
ruin it, while it is being melted. After dipping the plates in 
the wax, they are again dipped, when dripping has ceased, into 
the cold water, after which the sheets of wax are cleaved off, 
the plates brushed, wiped, cooled, and dipped again. The 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 207 

boiler used in melting the wax has the gate with a fine wire 
sieve attached near the top, so that the wax as it is drawn off 
into the second boiler, will be thoroughly cleansed. Mr. Root 
states that two men and a boy will thus make four hundred 
pounds of wax sheets in a day. 

Others use wooden plates on which to mold the sheets, 
while the Hetherington brothers prefer, and are very success- 
ful with a wooden cylinder, which is made to revolve in the 
melted wax, and is so hinged, that it can be speedily raised 
above or lowered into the liquid. 

/tial tlTCutting foundation, nothing is so admirable as the 
Carlin cutter (Fig. 67, a), which is like the wheel glass-cutters 
sold in the shops, except that a larger wheel of tin takes the 
place of the one of hardened steel. Mr. A. I. Root has 
suggested a grooved board (Fig. 67, b) to go with the above, 
the distance between the grooves being equal to the desired 
width of the strips of comb foundation to be cut. 

USE OP FOUNDATION. 

I have used foundation, as have many other more extensive 
apiarists, with perfect success in the section-boxes. The bees 
have so thinned it that even epicures could not tell comb- 
honey with such foundation, from that wholly made by the 
bees. Yet, I forbear recommending it for such use. When 
such men as Hetherington, Moore, Ellwood, and L. C. Root, 
protest against a course, it is well to pause before we adopt it ; 
so, while I have used foundation, I think with some small ad- 
vantage in sections and boxes for three years, I shall still 
pronounce against it. 

It will not be well to have the word artificial hitched on to 
our comb-honey. I think it exceedingly wise to maintain invio- 
late in the public mind the idea that comb-honey is par 
excellence, a natural product. And as Captain Hetherington 
aptly suggests, this argument is all the more weighty, in view 
of. the filthy condition of much of our commercial bees-wax. 

Again, our bees may not always thin the foundation, and 
we risk our reputation in selling it in comb-honey, and an 
unquestioned reputation is too valuable to be endangered in this 
way, especially as in these days of adulteration, we may not 



208 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

know how much paraffine, etc., there is in our foundation, 
unless we make it ourselves. 

Lastly, there is no great advantage in its use in the sections, 
as drone-comb is better, and with caution and care this can be 
secured in ample quantities to furnish very generous starters 
for all our sections. This will readily adhere, if the edge be 
dipped into melted beeswax, and applied to the sections. 

If any one should still be disposed to make such use of 
foundation, they should only purchase of very reliable parties, 
that they may be sure to use only such wax as is genuine, 
yelloto, clean, and certainly unmixed with paraffine, ..t LL *f 
of the commercial products which were first used to adulter- 
ate the wax. Only pure, clean, unbleached wax should 
be used in making foundation. We should be very careful 
not to put on the market any comb-honey where the founda- 
tion had not been properly thinned by the bees. Perhaps a 
very fine needle would enable one to determine this point 
without injury to the honey. 

But the most promising use of foundation, to which there 
can be no objection, is in the brood-chamber. It is astonish- 
ing to see how rapidly the bees will extend the cells, and how 
readily the queen will stock them with eggs if of the right 
size, five cells to the inch. The foundation should always 
be the right size either for worker or drone-comb. Of 
course the latter size would never be used in the brood-cham- 
ber. The advantage of foundation is, first, to insure worker- 
comb, and thus worker-brood, and second, to furnish wax, so 
that the bees may be free to gather honey. We proved in 
our apiary the past two seasons, that by use of foundation, 
and a little care in pruning out the drone-comb, we could 
limit or even exclude drones from our hives, and we have but 
to examine the capacious and constantly crowded stomachs 
of these idlers, to appreciate the advantage of such a 
course. Bees may occasionally tear down worker-cells and 
build drone-cells in their place ; but such action, I believe, 
is not sufficiently extensive to ever cause anxiety. I am also 
certain that bees that have to secrete wax to form comb, do 
much less gathering. Wax secretion seems voluntary, and 
when rapid seems to require quiet and great consumption of 
food. If we make two artificial colonies equally strong, sup- 
ply the one with combs, and withhold them from the other, 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 209 

we will find that this last sends much fewer bees to the fields, 
while all the bees are more or less engaged in wax secretion. 
Thus the other colony gains much more rapidly in honey, 
first, because more bees are storing ; second, because less 
food is consumed. This is undoubtedly the reason why 
exti-acted-honey can be secured in far greater abundance than 
•can comb-honey. 

The foundation if used the full depth of the frame, stretches 
so that many cells are so enlarged as to be used for drone- 
brood. This demands, if we use the sheets unstrengthened, 
that they only be used as guides, not reaching more than one- 
third of the depth of the frame. Strips not less than four 
inches wide will not sag to do any harm. The foundation, 
too, should not quite reach the sides of the frame, as by 
expansion it is liable to warp and bend. Captain J. E. 
Hetherington has invented a cure for this stretching and warp- 
ing, by strengthening the foundation. To do this, he runs 
several fine copper wires into the foundation as it passes 
through the machine. 

I understand, too, that Mr. M. Metcalf, of this State, has a 
similar device now being patented. 

This is a valuable suggestion, as it permits full-sized sheets 
of foundation to be inserted in the frames. I presume that 
very soon all worker-foundation will contain such wires. 

TO FASTEN THE FOUNDATION. 

In the thin sections, the foundation can best be fastened 
by use of the melted wax. To accomplish this, I have used a 
block made thus : Saw a fifteen-sixteenths inch board so that 
it will just exactly fill a section. Screw this to a second 
board, which is one-half inch broader each way, so that the 
larger under board will project one-quarter of an inch each 
side the top board. Now set the section over the top board, 
place the foundation, cut a trifle shorter than the inside of the 
section, Avithin, close to the top and one side of the section, 
and cause it to adhere by running on a little of the melted 
wax, which, by use of a kerosene lamp or stove, may be kept 
melted. If the basin is double-walled, with water in the 
outer chamber and wax in the inner, it is much safer, as then 
the wax will never burn. 



210 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



If the tops of the sections are thick, they may be grooved T 
and by crowding the foundation into the groove, and, if 
necessary, pressing it with a thin wedge, it will be securely held. 

This last method will work nicely in case of fastening into- 
the brood-frames. But I have found. that I could fasten them 
rapidly and very securely by simply pressing them against 
the rectangular projection from the top-bar already described 
(page 134). In this case a block (Fig. 68, a) should reach 

Fig. 68. 



1 



up into the frame from the side which is nearest to the rectangu- 
lar projection — it will be remembered that the projection (Fig. 
36) is a little to one side of the centre of the top-bar, so that the 
foundation shall hang exactly in the centre — so far that its 
upper surface would be exactly level with the upper surface 
of the rectangular projection. This block, like the one de- 
scribed above, has shoulders (Fig. 68, c), so that it will always 
reach just the proper distance into the frame. It is also 
rabbeted at the edge where the projection of the top-bar 
of the frame will rest, (Fig. 68, b), so that the projec- 
tion has a solid support, and will not split off with pressure. 
We now set our frame on this block, lay on our foundation, 
cut the size we desh-e, which, unless strengthened, will be as 
long as the frame, and about four inches wide. The founda- 
tion will rest firmly on the projection and block, and touch 
the top-bar, at every point. We now take a board as thick 
as the projection is deep, and as wide (Fig. 69, d) as the frame 
is long, which may be trimmed off, so as to have a convenient 
handle (Fig. 69, e), and by wetting the edge of this (Fig- 



/ 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 211 

69, d) either in water, or, better, starch-water, and pressing 
with it on the foundation above the projection, the foundation 
will be made to adhere firmly to the latter, when the frame 
may be raised loith the block, taken off, and another fastened 
as before. I have practiced this plan for two years, and have 
had admirable success. I have very rarely known the founda- 
Fig. 69. 




tion to drop, though it must be remembered that our hives 
are shaded, and our frames small. 

The above methods are successful, but probably will receive 
valuable modifications at the hands of the ingenius apiarists 
of our land. Study in this direction will unquestionably 
pay, as the use of this material is going to be very extensive, 
and any improvements will be hailed with joy by the bee- 
keeping fraternity. 

SAVE THE WAX. 

As foundation is becoming so popular, and is destined to 
come into general use, it behooves us all to be very careful 
that no old comb goes to waste. Soiled drone-comb, old, worth- 
less worker-comb, and all fragments that cannot be used in 
the hives, together with cappings, after the honey is drained 
out through a coarse bag or colander — which process may be 
hastened by a moderate heat, not sufficient to melt the wax, 
and frequent stirring — should be melted, cleansed, and 
molded into cakes of wax, soon to be again stamped, not by 
the bees, but by wondrous art. 

METHODS. 

A slow and wasteful method is to melt in a vessel of heated 
water, and to purify by turning off the top, or allowing to 
cool, when the impurities at the bottom are scraped off, and 
the process repeated till all impurities are eliminated. 

A better method to separate the wax is to put it into a 
strong, rather coarse bag, then sink this in water and boil. 



•212 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



At intervals the comb in the bag should be pressed and stirred. 
The wax will collect on top of the water. 

To prevent the bag from burning, it should be kept from 
touching the bottom of the vessel by inverting a basin in the 
bottom of the latter, or else by using a double-walled vessel. 
The process should be repeated till the wax is perfectly 
cleansed. 

But, as wax is to become so important, and as the above 
methods are slow, wasteful, and apt to give a poor quality of 
wax, specialists, and even amateurs who keep as many as ten 
or twenty colonies of bees, may well procure a wax ex- 
tractor (Fig. 70). This is also a foreign invention, the 
Fig. 70. 




first being made by Prof. G-erster, of Berne, Switzerland. 
These cost from five to seven dollars, are made of tin, are 
very convenient and admirable, and can be procured of any 
dealer in apiarian supplies. 

By this invention, all the wax, even of the oldest combs, 
can be secured, in beautiful condition, and as it is perfectly 
neat, there is no danger of provoking the " best woman in the 
world," as we are in danger of doing by use of either of the 
above methods — for what is more untidy and perplexing than 
to have wax boil over on the stove, and perhaps get on to the 
floor, and be generally scattered about. 

All pieces of comb should be put into a close Dox, and if 
any larvae are in it, the comb should be melted so frequently 
that it would not smell badly. By taking pains, both in 
collecting and melting, the apiarist will be surprised at the close 
of the season, as he views his numerous and beautiful cakes of 
■comb, and rejoice as he thinks how little trouble it has all cost. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 213 



CHAPTER XV. 

MARKETING HONEY. 

No subject merits more attention by the apiarist than that" 
of marketing honey. There is no question but that the supply 
is going to continually increase, hence, to sustain the price 
we must stimulate the demand, and by doing this we shall 
not only supply the people with a food element which is 
necessary to health, but we shall also supersede in part the 
commercial syrups, which are so adulterated as not only to' 
be crowded with filth the most revolting, but are often even 
teeming with poison. (Report of Michigan Board of Health 
for 1874, pp. 75-79.) To bring, then, to our neighbor's table 
the pure, wholesome, delicious nectar, right from the hive, is 
philanthropy, whether he realizes it or not. 

Nor is it difficult to stimulate the demand. I have given 
special attention to this topic for the last few years, and am 
free to say, that not a tithe of the honey is consumed in our" 
country that might and should be. 

HOW TO INVIGORATE THE MARKETS. 

First. See that no honey goes to market from your apiary 
that is not in the most inviting form possible. Grade all the 
honey thoroughly, and expect prices to correspond with the 
grade. See that every package and vessel is not only attract- 
ive, but. so arranged as not to make the dealer any trouble or 
cause him any vexation. One leaky can or crate may do 
great injury. 

Second. See that every grocer in your vicinity has honey 
constantly on hand. Do all you can to build up a home mar- 
ket. The advice to sell to only one or two dealers is wrong 
and pernicious. Whether we are to buy or sell, we shall find 
almost always that it will be most satisfactory to deal with 
men whom we know, and who are close at hand. Only when 



214 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

you outgrow your home market should you ship to distant 
places. This course will limit the supply in the large cities, 
and thus raise the prices in the great marts, whose prices fix 
those in the country. Be sure to keep honey constantly in 
the markets. 

Third. Insist that each grocer makes the honey very con- 
spicuous. If necessary, supply large, fine labels, with your 
own name almost as prominent as is that of the article. 

Fourth. Deliver the honey in small lots, so that it will be 
sure to be kept in inviting form, and, if possible, attend to 
the delivery yourself, that you may know that all is done 
" decently and in order." 

Fifth. Instruct your grocers that they may make the honey 
show to the best effect, and thus captivate the purchaser 
through the sight alone. 

Sixth. Call local conventions, that all in the commu- 
nity may know and practice the best methods, so that the 
markets may not be demoralized by poor, unsalable honey. 

Of course, the method of preparation will depend largely, 
and vary greatly, upon the style of honey to be sold, so we 
will consider these kinds separately. 

EXTRACTED HONEY. 

As before intimated, extracted honey has all the flavor, and 
is in every way equal, if not superior — comb itself is innu- 
tritious, and very indigestible — to comb-honey. When people 
once know its excellence — know that it is not " strained " — 
let us, as apiarists, strive in every way to kill that word — 
then the demand for this article will be vastly increased, to 
the advantage both of the consumer and the apiarist. 

Explain to each grocer what we mean by the word extracted, 
and ask him to spread wide the name and character of the 
honey. Leave cups of the honey with the editors and men 
of influence, and get them to discuss its origin and merits. 
I speak from experience, when I say that in these ways the 
reputation and demand for extracted honey can be increased 
to a surprising degree, and with astonishing rapidity. 

HOW TO TEMPT THE CONSUMER. 

First. Have it chiefly in small cups — jelly cups are best. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 215 

Many persons will pay twenty-five cents for an article, when 
if it cost fifty cents they would not think of purchasing. 

Second. Only put it in such vessels as jelly cups or glass 
fruit jars, etc., that will be useful in every household when 
the honey is gone, that the buyer may feel that the vessel is 
clear gain. 

Third. Explain to the grocer that if kept above the tem- 
perature of 70° or 80° F., it will not granulate, that granula- 
tion is a pledge of purity and superiority, and show him how 
easy it is to reduce the crystals, and ask him to explain this 
to his customers. If necessary, liquify some of the granu- 
lated honey in his presence. 

Lastly. If you do not deliver the honey yourself, be sure 
that the vessels will not leak in transit. It is best, in case 
jelly cups are used, that they be. filled at the grocery. And 
don't forget the large label, which gives the kind of honey, 
grade, and producer's name. 

COMB-HONEY. 

This, from its wondrous beauty, especially when light- 
colored and immaculate, will always be a coveted article for 
the table, and will ever, with proper care, bring the highest 
price paid for honey. So it will always be best to work for 
this, even though we may not be able to procure it in such 
ample profusion as we may the extracted. He who has all 
kinds, will be able to satisfy every demand, and will most 
surely meet with success. 

RULES TO BE OBSERVED. 

This, too, should be chiefly in small sections (Fig. 50), for, 
as before stated, such are the packages that surely sell. 
Sections from four to six inches square will just fill a plate 
nicely, and look very tempting to the proud housewife, 
especially if some epicurean friends are to be entertained. 

The sections should surely be in place at the dawn of the 
white clover season, so that the apiarist may secure the most 
of this irresistible nectar, chaste as if capped by the very 
snow itself. They should be taken away as soon as capped, 
as delay makes them highways of travel for the bees, which 
always mar their beauty. 



216 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



When removed, if demanded, glass the sections, but before 
this, we should place them in hives one upon another, or special 
boxes made tight, with a close cover, in which to store either 
brood-frames in winter or sections at any season, and sulphur 
them. This is quickly and easily done by use of the smoker. 
Get the fire in the smoker well to burning, add the sulphur, 
then place this in the top hive, or top of the special box! 
The sulphurous fumes will descend and deal out death to all 
moth larvae. This should always be done before shipping 
the honey, if we regard our reputations as precious. It is 
well to do this immediately upon removal, and also two weeks- 
after, so as to destroy the moth larvae not hatched when the 
sections are removed. 

If separators have been used, these sections are in good 
condition to be glassed, and are also in nice shape to ship 
even without glass, as they'may stand side by side and not 
mar the comb. 

The shipping-crate (Fig. 71) should be strong, neat and 
cheap, with handles as seen in Fig. 71 — such handles are also- 

Fig. 71. 




convenient in the ends of the hives, and can be cut in arc 
instant by having the circular-saw set to wabble. With handles- 
the crate is more convenient, and is more sure to be set on 
its bottom. The crate should also be glassed, as the sight 
of the comb will say: "Handle with care." 

Mr. Heddon also makes a larger crate (Fig. 72), which is 
neat and cheap. Muth's crate is like Heddon's, only smaller. 

It is well, too, to wrap the sections in paper, as thus break- 
age of one will not mean general ruin. However, this would 
be unnecessary in case the sections were of veneer and glassed, 
as before described. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



217 



In groceries, where the apiarist keeps honey for sale, it 
will pay him to furnish his own boxes. These should be 
made of white-wood, very neat, and glassed in front to show 
the honey, and the cover so fixed that unglassed sections — 
and these, probably, will soon become the most popular — 
cannot be punched or fingered. Be sure, too, that the label, 
Fig. 72. 




with kind of honey, grade, and name of apiarist, be so plain 
that "he who runs may read." 

Comb-honey that is to be kept in the cool weather of 
autumn, or the cold of winter, must be kept in warm rooms, 
or the comb will break from the section when handled. By 
keeping it quite warm for some days previous to shipment, it 
may be sent to market even in winter, but must be handled 
very carefully, and must make a quick transit. 

Above all, let " taste and neatness" ever be your motto. 



21S MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

HONEY PLANTS. 

As bees do not make honey, but only gather it, and as 
honey is mainly derived from certain flowers, it of course 
follows that the apiarist's success will depend largely upon 
the abundance of honey-secreting plants in the vicinity of his 
apiary. True it is that certain bark and plant lice secrete a 
kind of liquid sweet — honey of doubtful reputation — which, 
in the dearth of anything better, the bees seem glad to 
appropriate. I have thus seen the bees thick about a large 
bark-louse which attacks the tulip tree, and thus often destroys 
one of our best honey trees. This is an undeseribed species 
of the genus Lecanium. 1 have also seen them thick about 
three species of plant lice. One, the Pemphigus imbrica- 
tor, Fitch, works on the beech tree. Its abdomen is thickly 
covered with long wool, and it makes a comical show as it 
wags this up and down upon the least disturbance. The 
leaves of trees attacked by this louse, as also those beneath 
the trees, are fairly gummed with a sweetish substance. I 
have found that the bees avoid this substance, except at 
times of extreme drouth and long protracted absence of 
honeyed bloom. It was the source of no inconsiderable stores 
during the terribly parched autumn of Chicago's great 
disaster. (See Appendix, page 286). 

Another species of Pemphigus gives rise to certain soli- 
tary plum-like galls, which appear on the upper surface of the 
red elm. These galls are hollow, with a thin skin, and within 
the hollows are the lice, which secrete an abundant sweet 
that often attracts the bees to a feast of fat things, as the gall 
is torn apart, or cracks open, so that the sweet exudes. This 
sweet is anything but disagreeable, and may not be unwhole- 
some to the bees. 

Another aphis, of a black hue, works on the branches of our 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 219 

willows, which they often entirely cover, and thus greatly dam- 
age another tree valuable for both honey and pollen. Were it 
not that they seldom are so numerous two years in succession, 
they would certainly banish from among us one of our most 
ornamental and valuable honey-producing trees. These are 
fairly thronged in September and October, and not unfre- 
quently in spring and summer if the lice are abundant, by 
bees, wasps, ants, and various two-winged flies, all eager to lap 
up the oozing sweets. This louse is doubtless the Lachnus 
dentatus, of Le Baron, and the Aphis salicti, of Harris. 

Bees also get, in some regions, a sort of honey-dew, 
which enables them to add to their stores with surprising- 
rapidity. I remember one morning while riding on horse- 
back along the Sacramento river, in California, I broke 
off a willow twig beside the road when, to my sui'prise, 
I found it was fairly decked with drops of honey. Upon 
further examination I found the willow foliage was abun- 
dantly sprinkled by these delicious drops. These, shrubs 
were undisturbed by insects, nor were they under trees. 
Here then was a real case of honey-dew, which must have 
been distilled through the night by the leaves. I never saw 
any such phenomenon in Michigan, yet others have. Dr. A. 
H. Atkins, an accurate and conscientious observer, has noted 
this honey-dew more than once here in Central Michigan. 

Bees also get some honey from oozing sap, some of question- 
able repute from about cider mills, some from grapes and 
other fruit which have been crushed, or eaten and torn by 
wasps and other insects. That bees ever tear the grapes is a 
question of which 1 have failed to receive any personal proof, 
though for years I have been carefully seeking it. I have 
lived among the vineyards of California, and have often 
watched bees about vines in Michigan, but never saw bees 
tear open the grapes. I have laid crushed grapes in the 
apiary, when the bees were not gathering, and were ravenous 
for stores, which, when covered with sipping bees, were 
replaced with sound grape-clusters, which in no instance were 
mutilated. I have thus been led to doubt if bees ever attack 
sound grapes, though quick to improve the opportunities 
which the oriole's beak and the stronger jaws of wasps offer 
them. Still, Prof. Riley feels sure that bees are sometimes 



220 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

thus guilty, and Mr. Bidwell tells me he has frequently seen 
bees rend sound grapes, which they did with their feet. 
Yet, if this is the case, it is certainly of rare occurrence, 
and is more than compensated by the great aid which the 
bees afford the fruit-grower in the great work of cross-fertili- 
zation, which is imperatively necessary to his success, as has 
been so well shown by Dr. Asa Gray and Mr. Chas. Darwin. 
It is true that cross-fertilization of the flowers, which can only 
be accomplished by insects, and early in the season by the 
honey-bee, is often, if not always, necessary to a full yield of 
fruit and vegetables. I am informed by Prof. W. W. Tracy, 
that the gardeners in the vicinity of Boston keep bees that 
they may perform this duty. Even then, if Mr. Bidwell and 
Prof. Riley are right,, and the bee does, rarely— for surely this 
is very rare, if ever — destroy grapes, still they are, beyond any 
possible question, invaluable aids to the pomologist. 

But the principal source of honey is still from the flowers. 

WHAT ARE THE VALUABLE HONEY PLANTS? 

In the northeastern part of our country the chief reliance 
for May is the fruit-blossoms, willows, and sugar maples. In 
June white clover yields largely of the most attractive honey, 
both as to appearance and flavor. In July the incomparable 
basswood makes both bees and apiarist jubilant. In August 
buckwheat offers a tribute, which we welcome, though it be dark 
and pungent in flavor, while with us in Michigan, August and 
September give us a profusion of bloom which yields to no 
other in the' richness of its capacity to secrete honey, and is not 
cutoff till the autumn frosts— usually about September 15. 

Thousands of acres of golden rod, boneset, asters, and 
other autumn flowers of our new northern counties, as yet 
have blushed unseen, with fragrance wasted. This unoccu- 
pied territory, unsurpassed in its capability for fruit production, 
covered with grand forests of maple and basswood, and spread 
with the richest of autumn bloom, offers opportunities to the 
practical apiarist rarely equaled except in the Pacific States, 
and not even there, when other privileges are considered. In 
these localities, two or three hundred pounds to the colony is 
no surprise to the apiarist, while even four or five hundred 
are not isolated cases. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



221 



In the following table will be found a list of valuable honey 
plants. Those in the first column are annual, biennial ur 
perennial ; the annual being enclosed in a parenthesis thus: ( ); 
the biennial enclosed in brackets thus: [ ] ; while those in the 
second column are shrubs or trees ; the names of shrubs 
being enclosed in a parenthesis. The date of commence- 
ment of bloom is, of course, not invariable. The one appended, 
in case of plants which grow in our State, is about average 
for Central Michigan. Those plants whose names appear in 
small capitals yield very superior honey. Those with (a) are 
useful for other purposes than honey secretion.' All but those 
with a * are native or very common in Michigan. Those written 
in the plural refer to more than one species. Those followed 
by a f are very numerous in species. Of course I have not 
named all, as that would include some hundreds which have 
been observed at the college, taking nearly all of the two great 
orders Compositse and Rosaceae. I have only aimed to give 
the most important, omitting many foreign plants of notoriety, 
as I have had no personal knowledge of them: 



DATE. 


Annuals or Perennials. 


DATE. 


Shrubs or Trees. 


April '. ^Dandelion. "" 

April and May. Strawberry.(a) 
May and June . l*White Sage, California 
M.ay and June . l*Sumac, California. 
May and June . l*CoffeeBerry,California 
June to July . . .-{White CLOVER.(a) 
June to July . . . Alsike CLOVER.(a) 


March and Ap'l 
March and Ap'l 
March and Ap'l 
March and Ap'l 
April and May. 
April and May. 


Red or Soft Maple, (a) 
^Poplar or Aspen. 
Silver Maple. 
*Judas Tree. 
(Willows)t also Trees. 
*Judas Tree— South. 


June to July . . . *rSwEET Clover. 1 




•(Alder.) 




*Horehound. [Weed. 

Ox-eyed Daisy— Bad 

Bush Honeysuckle. 

*Sage, 

'Mother-wort. 

* (Borage.) 

*(Cotton.)(a) 

Silk or Milk Weeds. 

(Mustard)t 

*(Rape.)(a) 

St. John's Wort. 

(MIGNONETTE.) (a) 

(Corn.)(a) 

*( Teasel.) (a) 

*Catnip.(a) 

Asparagus, (a) 

*( Rocky M't.Bee Plant) 

Boneset. 

Bergamot. 

Figwort, 

(Buckwheat.) (a) 

(Snap-dragon.) 

(Golden Rod.)! 

Asters.t 

Marsh Sun-Flowers. 

Tick-Seed. 












June to July . . . 
June to August 


May , 


(Hawthorns.) 

i Fruit Trees — Apple, 


June to frost. . . 
June to frost. . . 




( etc. (a) 

( (Currant and Goose- 






l berry.) (a) 


June to frost. . . 




( (Chinese Wistaria 


June to frost. . . 
July 


May and June.. 
May and June.. 
May and June. . 
May and June.. 
June 


1 Vine— South.) 

(Barberry.) 

(Grape-vine.) (a) 

Tulip-tree. 

-(Sumac.) 

Wild-Plum. 

(Black Raspberry.) (a) 

.Locusts. 

(Red Raspberry.) (a) 

(Blackberry.) 


July 


July to August. 
July to August. 
July to August. 

July to frost 

July to frost 

July to frost 


June 

June to July ... 
July 








July 






July 




August to frost 
August to frost 


July to August. 
July to Sept 


*Pepper-tree, Cal'a. 
*(St. John's Worts.) 


August to frostl Spanish Needles. 


August to Sept. 


*Red Gum, California. 



222 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

DESCRIPTION WITH PRACTICAL REMARKS. 

As this subject of bee pasturage is of such prime im- 
portance, and as the interest in the subject is so great and 
widespread, I feel that details with illustrations will be more 
than warranted. 

We have abundant experience to show that forty or fifty 
Fig. 73.— Maple. 




colonies of bees, take the seasons as they average, are all that 
a single place will sustain to the greatest advantage. Then. 
how significant the fact, that when the season is the best, full 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



223 



three times that number of colonies will find ample resources 
to keep all employed. So this subject of artificial pasturage 
becomes one well worthy close study and observation. The 
subject, too, is a very important one in reference to the loca- 
tion of the apiary. 

It is well to remember in this connection, that two or three 
miles should be regarded as the limit of profitable gathering. 
That is, apiaries of from fifty to one hundred or more colo- 
nies, should not be nearer than four or five miles of each other. 

APRIL PLANTS. 

As we have already seen, the apiarist does not secure the 
best results, even in the early spring, except the bees are 
encouraged by the increase of their stores of pollen and 
honey ; hence, in case we do not practice stimulative feeding 
— and many will not — it becomes very desirable to have some 
Fig. 74— Willow. 




early bloom. Happily, in all sections of the United States 
our desires are not in vain. 

Early in spring there are many scattering wild flowers, as 
the blood-root (Sanguinaria canadensis), liver-leaf {Hepa- 



224 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

tica acutiloba), and various others of the crowfoot family, as 
also many species of cress, which belong to the mustard 
family, etc., all of which are valuable and important. 

The maples (Fig. 73), which are all valuable honey plants, 
also contribute to the early stores. Especially valuable are 
the silver maples (Acer dasycarpum), and the red or soft 
maples (Acer rubrum), as they bloom so very early, long 
before the leaves appear. The bees work on these, here in 
Michigan, the first week of April, and often in March. They 
are also magnificent shade trees, especially those that have 
the weeping habit. Their early bloom is very pleasing, their 
summer form and foliage beautiful, while their flaming tints 
in autumn are indescribable. The foreign maples, sycamore, 
Acer pseudo-platanus, and Norway, Acer platanoides, are 
also very beautiful. Whether superior to ours as honey 
plants, I am unable to say. 

The willows, too (Fig. 74), rival the maples in the early 
period of bloom. Some are very early, blossoming in March, 
while others, like the white willow (Salix alba) (Fig. 74), 
bloom in May. The flowers on one tree or bush of the willow 
are all pistillate, that is, have pistils, but no stamens, while 

Fig. 75.— Judas Tree 




on others they are all staminate, having no pistils. On the 
former, they can gather only honey, on the latter only pollen. 
That the willow furnishes both honey and pollen is attested 
by the fact that I saw both kinds of trees, the pistillate and 
the staminate, thronged with bees the past season. The wil- 
low, too, from its elegant form and silvery foliage, is one of 
our finest shade trees. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



225 



In the south of Michigan, and thence southward to Ken- 
tucky, and even beyond, the Judas tree, or red-bud, Cercis 
canadensis (Fig. 75), is not only worthy of cultivation as a 
honey plant, but is also very attractive, and well deserving 
of attention for its ornamental qualities alone. This blooms 
from March to May, according to the latitude. 

The poplars — not the tulip — also bloom in April, and are 
freely visited by the bees. The wood is immaculate, and is 
used for toothpicks. Why not use it for honey-boxes ? 

MAT PLANTS. 

In May we have the grand sugar maple, Acer saccharinum 
(Fig. 73), incomparable for beauty, also all our various fruit 
trees, peach, cherry, plum, apple, etc., in fact all the Rosaceae 

Fig. 76. — American Wistaria. 




family. Our beautiful American Wistaria, Wistaria frutes- 
cens (Fig. 76), the very ornamental climber, or the still more 
lovely Chinese Wistaria, Wistaria sinensis (Fig. 77), which 
has longer racemes than the native, and often blossoms twice 
in the season. These are the woody twiners for the apiarist. 
The barberry, too, Berber is vulgaris (Fig. 78), comes after 
fruit blossoms, and is thronged with bees in search of nectar 



226 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

Fig-. 77 '.—Chinese Wistaria. 

If? 




in spring, as with children in winter, in quest of the beautiful 
scarlet berries, so pleasingly tart. 

Fig. 78 —Barberry. 




In California, the sumac, the coffee berry, and the famous 
white sage (Fig. 79), keep the bees full of activity. 



MANUAL OP THE APIARV. 



227 



jiWtfM/. 




^PP fife 



IS' 5 .- ■■ ? \* 

Mm " >■ ' ; --WkL 

* -«' .1 - I III • 1P^ 







Fig. 79.— White Sage. 



228 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

JUNE PLANTS. 

With June comes the incomparable white or Dutch clover, 
Trifolium repens (Fig. 80), whose chaste and modest bloom 
betokens the beautiful, luscious and unrivalled sweets which 

Fig. 80. — White or Dutch Clover. 




are hidden in its corolla tube. Also its sister, Alsike or 
■Swedish, Trifolium hybrida (Fig 81), which seems to resemble 
both the white and red clover. It is a stronger grower than 
the white, and has a whitish blossom tinged with pink. This 
forms excellent pasture and hay for cattle, sheep, etc., and 
may well be sown by the apiarist. It will often pay apiarists 
to furnish neighboring farmers with seed as an inducement to 
grow this par excellent honey plant. Like white clover, it 
blooms all through June into July. Both of these should 
be sown early in spring with timothy, five or six pounds of 
seed to the acre, in the same manner that red clover seed is 
sown. 

Sweet clover, yellow and white, Melilotus officinalis (Fig. 
82), and Melilotus alba, are well named. They bloom from 
the middle of June to the first of October. Their perfume 
scents the air for long distances, and the hum of bees that 
throng their flowers is like music to the apiarist's ear. The 
honey, too, is just exquisite. These clovers are biennial, not 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



229> 




Fig. 81. — Alsike Clover. 



230 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

Fig. 82.— Melilot Clover 







blooming the first season, and dying after they bloom the 
second season. Another disagreeable fact, they have no value 

Fig. 83.— Borage. 




except for honey. They are said to become pernicious weeds 
if allowed to spread. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



231 



The other clovers — lucerne, yellow trefoil, scarlet trefoil, and 
alfalfa — have not proved of any value with us, perhaps owing 
to locality. 

Borage, JBorago officinalis (Fig. 83), an excellent bee 
plant, blooms from June till frost, and is visited by bees even 
Fig. 84. — Mignonette. 




in very rainy weather. It seems not to be a favorite, but is 
eagerly visited when all others fail to yield nectar. 

Pig. 85.— Ohm. 




Mignonette, Ixeseda odorata (Fig. 84), blooms from the 
middle of June till frost, is unparalleled for its sweet odor, 
furnishes nectar in profusion, and is well worthy cultivation. 



232 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



It does not secrete well in wet weather, but in favorable 
weather it is hardly equalled. 

Okra or gumbo, Hibiscus esculentus, (Fig. 85), also blooms 
in June. It is as much sought after by the bees in quest of 
honey, as by the cook in search of a savory vegetable, or one 
to give tone to soup. 

Sage, Salvia officinalis, horehound, Marrubium vulgare, 
motherwort, Lebnur us car diaca, and catnip, Nepeta cataria, 
which latter does not commence to bloom till July^ all furnish 
nice white honey, remain in bloom a long time, and are very 
desirable, as they are in blooin in the honey dearth of July 
and August. They, like many others of the mint family 
(Fig. 86), are thronged with bees during the season of bloom. 

Fig. 86.— Mint. 




The first and last are of commercial importance, and all may 
well be introduced by apiarists, wherever there is any space 
or waste ground. 

The silk or milk-weed furnishes abundant nectar from 
June to frost, as there are several species of the genus 
Asclepias, which is wide-spread in our country. This is the 
plant which has large pollen masses which often adhere to 
the legs of bees (Fig. 87), and sometimes so entrap them as 
to cause their death. Prof. Riley once very graciously advised 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



233 



planting them to kill bees. I say graciously, as I have 
watched these very closely, and am sure they do little harm, 
and are rich in nectar. Seldom a bee gets caught so as to 
hold it long, and when these awkward masses are carried 
Fig. 87.— Pollen of Milk-weed. 




away with the bee, they are usually left at the door of the 
hive, where I have often seen them in considerable numbers. 
The river bank hard by our apiary is lined with these sweet- 
smelling herbs, and we would like even more. 
Fig. 88.— Black Mustard. 




Black mustard, Sinapis nigra (Fig. 88) white mustard, 
Sinapis alba, and rape, Brassica campestris (Fig. 89), 
all look much alike, and are all admirable bee plants, 
as they furnish much and beautiful honey. The first, if self- 



234 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



sown, blooms July 1st, the others June 1st ; the first about 
eight weeks after sowing, the others about four. The mus- 
tards bloom for four weeks, rape for three. These are all 
specially commendable, as they may be made to bloom during 
the honey dearth of July and August, and are valuable plants 
to raise for the seed. Rape seems to be very attractive to 
insects, as the flea beetles and the blister beetles are often 
quite too much for it, though they do not usually destroy the 
plants till after they have blossomed. I have several times 

Fig. 89.— Bape. 




purchased what purported to be Chinese mustard, dwarf and 
tall, but Prof. Beal, than whom there is no better authority, 
tells me they are only the white and black, and certainly, they 
are no whit better as bee plants. These plants, with buck- 
wheat, the mints, borage and mignonette, are specially 
interesting, as they cover, or may be made to cover, the honey 
dearth from about July 20th to August 20 th. 

The mustards and rape may be planted in drills about eight 
inches apart, any time from May 1st to July 15th. Four 
quarts will sow an acre. 

In this month blooms the tulip tree, Lirioclendron tulip- 
if era (Fig. 90) — often called poplar in the South — which is 
not only an excellent honey producer, but is one of our most 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



235 



stately and admirable shade-trees. Now, too, bloom the 
sumacs, though one species blooms in May, the wild plum, 
the raspberries, whose nectar is unsurpassed in color and 
flavor, and the blackberry. Corn, too, is said by many to yield 
largely of honey as well as pollen, and the teasel, JDipsacvs 

Fig. 90.— Tulip 




fullonum (Fig. 91), is said, not only by Mr. Doolittle, but 
by English and Grerman apiarists, to yield richly of beautiful 
honey. This last, too, has commercial importance. The 



236 



MANUAL OP THE A PI ART. 



blackberry opens its petals in June, and also the fragrant 
locust, which, from its rapid growth, beautiful form and hand- 
some foliage, would rank among our first shade trees, except 
that it is so tardy in spreading its canopy of green, and so 
liable to ruinous attack by the borers, which last peculiarity it 
Fig. 91.— Teasel. 




shares with the incomparable maples. Washing the trunks 
of the trees in June and July with soft soap, will in great 
part remove this trouble. 

Fig. 92.— Cotton. 




Now, too, our brothers of the South reap a rich harvest 
from the great staple, cotton (Fig. 92), which commences to 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



237 



bloom early in June, and remains in blossom even to October. 
This belongs to the same family — Mallow — as the hollyhock, 
and like it, blooms and fruits through the season. 



JULY PLANTS. 



Early in this month opens the far-famed basswood or lin- 
den, Tilia Americana (Fig. 93), which, for the profusion 

Fig. 93.— Basswood. 




and quality of its honey has no superior. The tree, too, from 
its great spreading top and fine foliage, is magnificent for 
shade. Five of these trees are within two rods of my study 
window, and their grateful fragrance, and beautiful form and 
shade, have often been the subject of remark by visitors. 

Figwort, Scrophularia nodosa (Fig. 94), often called rattle- 
weed, as the seeds will rattle in the pod, and carpenter's 
square, as it has a square stalk, is an insignificant looking 
weed, with inconspicuous flowers, that afford abundant nectar 
from the middle of July till frost. I have received almost as 
many for identification as I have of the asters and golden- 
rods. Prof. Beal remarked to me a year or two since, that it 
hardly seemed possible that it could be so valuable. We 



238 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

cannot always rightly estimate by appearances alone. It is a 
very valuable plant to be scattered in waste places. 

That beautiful and valuable honey plant, from Minnesota, 
Colorado, and the Rocky Mountains, cleome, or the Rocky 
Mountain bee-plant, Cleome integrifolia (Fig. 96), if self- 
sown, or sown early in spring, blooms by the middle of July, 
and lasts for long weeks. Nor can anything be more gay 
than these brilliant flowers, alive with bees all through the 
long fall. This should be planted in fall or spring, in drills 
two feet apart, the plants six inches apart in the drills. The 
seeds, which grow in pods, are very numerous, and are said 
to be valuable for chickens. Now, too, commence to bloom 
the numerous Eupatoriums, or bonesets, or thoroughworts 

Fig. 94.— Figwort. 




(Fig. 97), which fill the marshes of our country, and the hives 
as well, with their rich golden nectar — precursors of that pro- 
fusion of bloom of this composite order, whose many species 
are even now budding in preparation for the sea of flowers 
which will deck the marsh-lands of August and September. 
Wild bergamot, too, Monarda fistulosa, which, like the 
thistles, is of importance to the apiarist, blooms in July. 

The little shrub of our marshes, appropriately named but- 
ton-bush, Cephalanthus occidentalism (Fig. 95), also shares 
the attention of the bees with the linden ; while apiarists 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



2'39 




Fig. 96. — Rocky Mountain Bee-Plant. 



240 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

of the South find the sour-wood, or sorrel tree, Oxydendrum 
urboreum, a valuable honey tree. This belongs to the Heath 
family, which includes the far-famed heather bloom of Eng- 
land. It also includes our whortleberry, cranberry, blueberry, 
and one plant which has no enviable reputation, as furnishing 
honey, which is very poisonous, even fatal to those who eat, 
the mountain laurel, iCahnia latifolia. Yet, a near relative 
of the South Andromeda nitida, is said to furnish beautiful 
and wholesome honey in great quantities. The Virginia 
creeper also blooms in July. I wish I could say that this 
beautiful vine, transplendent in autumn, is a favorite with the 
honey-bee. Though it often, nay always, swarms with wild 
Fig. 95. — Button Bush. 




bees when in blossom, yet I never saw a honey-bee visit the 
ample bloom amidst its rich, green, vigorous foliage. Now, 
too, the St. John's wort, Hypericum, with its many species, 
both shrubby and herbaceous, offers bountiful contributions 
to the delicious stores of the honey-bee. The catnip, too, 
Nepeta cataria, and our cultivated asparagus — which if 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



241 








^ 




Fig. 97. — Boneset. 



242 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



uncut in spring will bloom in June — so delectable for the 
table, and so elegant for trimming table meats and for ban- 
quets in autumn, come now to offer their nectarian gifts. 

AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER PLANTS. 

The cultivated buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum, (Fig. 
98), usually blooms in August, as it is sown the first of July 
— three pecks per acre is the amount to sow — but by sowing 
the first of June, it may be made to bloom the middle of 

Fig. 98.— Buckwheat. 




July, when there is generally, in most localities, an absence 
of nectar-secreting flowers. The honey is inferior in color 
and flavor, though some people prefer this to all other honey. 
The silver-leaf buckwheat blooms longer, has more numerous 
flowers, and thus yields more grain than the common variety. 
Now, too, come the numerous golden-rods. The species of 
this genus, Solidago (Fig. 99), in the Eastern United States, 
number nearly two-score, and occupy all kinds of soils, and 
are at home on upland, prairie and morass. They yield 
abundantly of rich, golden honey, with flavor that is unsurpassed 
by any other. Fortunate the apiarist who can boast of a 
thicket of Solidagoes in his locality. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



243 



The many plants usually styled sun-flowers, because of 
their resemblance to our cultivated plants of that name, 
which deck the hill-side, meadow and marsh-land, now unfurl 
Fig. 99.— Golden- Bod. 




their showy involucres, and open their modest corollas, to in- 
vite the myriad insects to sip the precious nectar which 
each of the clustered flowers secretes. Our cultivated sun- 
flowers, I think, are indifferent honey plants, though some 
Fig. 100.— Aster. 




think them big with beauty, and their seeds are relished by 
poultry. But the asters (Fig. 100), so wide-spread, the 



244 manual' op the apiary. 

beggar-ticks, JBidens, and Spanish-needles of our marshes, 
the tick-seed, Coreopsis, also, of the low, marshy places, 
with hundreds more of the great family Compositae, are replete 
with precious nectar, and with favorable seasons make the 
apiarist who dwells in their midst jubilant, as he watches the 
bees, which fairly flood the hives with their rich and delicious 
honey. In all of this great family, the flowers are small and 
inconspicuous, clustered in compact heads, and when the 
plants are showy with bloom, like the sun-flowers, the brilliancy 
is due to the involucre, or bracts which serve as a frill to dec- 
orate the more modest flowers. 

I have thus mentioned the most valuable honey plants of 
our country. Of course there are many omissions. Let all 
apiarists, by constant observation, help to fill up the list. 

BOOK ON BOTANY. 

I am often asked what books' are best to make apiarists 
botanists. I am glad to answer this question, as the study of 
botany will not only be valuable discipline, but will also fur- 
nish abundant pleasure, and more, give important practical 
information. Gray's Lessons, and Manual of Botany, in one 
volume, published by Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman & Co., New 
York, is the most desirable treatise on this subject. 

PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS. 

It will pay well for the apiarist to decorate his grounds 
with soft and silver maples, for their beauty and early bloom. 
If his soil is rich, sugar maples and lindens may well serve a 
similar purpose. The Judas tree, too, and tulip trees, both 
North and South, may well be made to ornament the apiarist's 
home. For vines, obtain the wistarias. 

Sow and encourage the sowing of Alsike clover and silver- 
leaf buckwheat in your neighborhood. Be sure that your 
wife, children and bees, can often repair to a large bed of the 
new giant or grandiflora mignonette, and remember that it, 
with cleome and borage, blooms till frost. Study the bee 
plants of your region, and then study the albove table, and pro- 
vide for a succession, remembering that the mustards, rape and 
buckwheat may be made to bloom almost at pleasure, by sow- 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 245 

ing at the proper time. Don't forget that borage and the 
mustards seem comparatively indifferent to wet weather. Be 
sure that all waste places are stocked with motherwort, catnip, 
asters, etc. (See Appendix, page 289). 

The above dates are only true for the most part in Michi- 
gan and Northern Ohio, and for more Southern latitudes must 
be varied, which by comparison of a few, as the fruit trees, 
becomes no difficult matter. 



246 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

WINTERING- BEES. 

This is a subject, of course, of paramount importance to 
the apiarist, as this is the rock on which some of even the 
most successful have recently split. Yet I come fearlessly 
to consider this question, as from all the multitude of dis- 
asters I see no occasion for discouragement. If the problem 
of successful wintering has not been solved already, it surely 
will be, and that speedily. So important an interest was 
never yet vanquished by misfortune, and there is no reason to 
think that history is now going to be reversed. Even the 
worst aspect of the case — in favor of which I think, though 
in opposition to such excellent apiarists as Marvin, Heddon, 
etc., that there is no proof, and but few suggestions even — 
that these calamities are the effects of an epidemic, would be 
all powerless to dishearten men trained to reason from effect 
to cause. Even an epidemic — which would by no means skip 
by the largest, finest apiaries, owned and controlled by the 
wisest, most careful, and most thoughtful, as has been the 
case in the late "winters of our discontent, " nor only choose 
winters of excessive cold, or following great drouth and 
absence of honey secretion in which to work its havoc — 
would surely yield to man's invention. 

THE CAUSE OP DISASTROUS WINTERING. 

Epidemic, then, being set aside as no factor in the solution, 
to what shall we ascribe such wide-spread disasters ? I fully 
believe, and to no branch of this subject have I given more 
thought, study, and observation, that all the losses may be 
traced either to unwholesome food, failure in late breeding 
of the previous year, extremes of temperature, or to pro- 
tracted cold with excessive dampness. I know from actual 
and wide-spread observation, that the severe loss of 1870 and 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 247 

1871 was attended in this part of Michigan with unsuitable 
honey in the hive. The previous autumn was unprecedentedly 
dry. Flowers were rare, and storing was largely from insect se- 
cretion, and consequently the stores were unwholesome. I tasted 
of honey from many hives only to find it most nauseating. I 
fully believe that had the honey been thoroughly extracted the 
previous autumn, and the bees fed good honey or sugar, no 
loss would have been experienced. At least it is significant 
that all who did so, escaped, even where their neighbors all 
failed. Nor less so the fact that when I discovered eight of 
my twelve colonies dead, and four more just alive, I cleaned 
the remaining ones all out, and to one no worse nor better 
than the others I gave good capped honey stored early the 
previous summer, while the others were left with their old 
stores, that one lived and gave the best record I have ever 
known, the succeeding season, while all the others died. 

Again, suppose that after the basswood season in July, 
there is no storing of honey, either from want of space, or 
from lack of bloom. In this case brood-rearing ceases. Yet 
if the weather is dry and warm, as of course it will be in 
August and September, the bees continue to wander about, 
death comes apace, and by autumn the bees are reduced in 
numbers, old in days, and illy prepared to brave the winter 
and perform the duties of spring. I fully believe that if all 
the colonies of our State and country had been kept breeding 
by proper use of the extractor, and feeding, even till into 
October, we should have had a diiferent record, especially as 
to spring dwindling, and consequent death. In the autumn 
of 1872 I kept my bees breeding till the first of October. 
The following winter I had no loss, while my neighbors lost 
all of their bees. 

Extremes of heat and cold are also detrimental to the bees. 
If the temperature of the hive becomes too high the bees 
become restless, eat more than they ought, and if confined to 
their hives are distended with their foeces, become diseased, 
besmear their comb and hives, and die. If when they become 
thus disturbed, they could have a purifying flight, all would 
be well. 

Again, if the temperature becomes extremely low, the bees to 
keep up the animal heat must take more food ; they are uneasy, 



248 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

exhale much moisture, which may settle and freeze on the 
outer combs about the cluster, preventing the bees from getting 
the needed food, and thus in this case both dysentery and 
starvation confront the bees. That able and far-seeing 
apiarist the lamented M. Quinby, was one of the first to 
discover this fact ; and here as elsewhere gave advice that if 
heeded, would have saved great loss and sore disappointment. 

I have little doubt, in fact I know from actual investigation, 
that in the past severe winters, those bees which under con- 
finement have been subject to severe extremes, are the ones 
that have invariably perished. Had the bees been kept in a 
uniform temperature ranging from 35° to 45° F., the record 
would have been materially changed. 

Excessive moisture, too, especially in cases of protracted 
cold, is always to be avoided. Bees, like all other animals, 
are constantly giving off moisture, which of course will be 
accelerated if the bees become disturbed, and are thus led to 
consume more food. This moisture not only acts as explained 
above, but also induces fungous growths. The mouldy comb is 
not wholesome, though it may never cause death. Hence 
another necessity of sufficient warmth to drive this moisture 
from the hive and some means to absorb it without opening 
the hive above and permitting a current, which will disturb- 
the bees, and cause the greater consumption of honey. 

THE REQUISITE TO SAFE WINTERING — GOOD FOOD. 

To winter safely, then, demands that the bees have thirty 
pounds by weight not guess — I have known three cases when 
guessing meant starvation — of good capped honey (coffee A 
sugar is just as good). If desired this may be fed as previ- 
ously explained, which should be done so early that all will 
be capped during the warm days of October. Let us be wary 
how we trust even crystallized glucose. It might be safe 
during a warm winter, when the bees would have frequent 
flights, yet prove disastrous in a cold winter. Let us use it 
cautiously till its merits are assured. I prefer, too, that some 
of the comb in the centre of the hive has empty cellSj to give 
a better chance to cluster, and that all the combs have a 
small hole through the centre, that the bees may pass freely 
through. This hole may simply be cut with a knife, or a tin 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 249 

tube the size of one's finger may be driven through the comb, 
and left in if desired, in which case the comb should be 
pushed out of the tube, and the tube be no longer than the 
comb is thick. This perforatory work I always do early in 
October, when I extract all uncapped honey, take out all 
frames after I have given them the 30 lbs., by weight, of 
honey, confine the space with a division-board, cover with the 
quilt and chaff, and then leave undisturbed till the cold of 
November calls for further care. 

SECURE LATE BREEDING. 

Keep the bees breeding till the first of October. Except 
in years of excessive drouth, this will occur in many parts 
of Michigan without extra care. Failure may result from the 
presence of worthless queens. Any queens which seem not 
to be prolific should be superseded whenever the fact becomes 
evident. I regard this as 'most important. Few know how 
much is lost by tolerating feeble, impotent queens in the 
apiary, whose ability can only keep the colonies alive. Never 
keep such queens about. Here, then, is another reason for 
always keeping extra queens on hand. Even with excellent 
queens, a failure in the honey yield may cause breeding to 
cease. In such cases, we have only to feed as directed under 
the head of feeding. 

TO SECURE AND MAINTAIN THE PROPER TEMPERATURE. 

We ought also to provide against extremes of temperature. 
It is desirable to keep the temperature between 35° and 50° 
F. through the entire winter, from November to April. If 
no cellar or house is at hand, this may be accomplished as 
follows : Some pleasant dry day in late October or early No- 
vember, raise the stand and place straw beneath ; then sur- 
round the hive with a box a foot outside the hive, with 
movable top and open on the east ; or else have a long wooden 
tube, opposite the entrance, to' permit flight. This tube 
should be six or eight inches square, to permit easy 
examinatior in muter. The same end may be gained 
by driving stakes and putting boards around. When we 
crowd between the box and the hive either straw, chaff, or 
shavings. After placing a good thickness of straw above the 



250 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



hive, lay on the cover of the box, or cover with boards. 
This preserves against changes of temperature during the 
winter, and also permits the bees to fly if it becomes neces- 
sary from a protracted period of warm winter weather. I 
have thus kept all my bees safely during two of the disastrous 
winters. 

As there is at present no plan of wintering, which promises 
to serve so well for all our apiarists, in view of its cheapness, 
ease, convenience, and universal efficiency, I will describe in 
detail the box now in use at the College, which costs only 
one dollar per hive, and which is convenient to store away in 
summer. 

BOX FOR PACKING. 

The sides of this (Fig. 101, a, a), facing east and west are 
three and a half feet long, two feet high on the south end, 
Fig. 101. 




and two and a half feet on the north. They are in one piece, 
which is secured by nailing the boards which form them to 
cleats, which are one inch from the ends. The north end 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 251 

(Fig. 101, b) is three feet by two and a half feet, the south 
(Fig. 101, b), three feet by two, and made the same as are the 
sides. The slanting top of the sides (Fig. 101, a, a) is made 
by using for the upper board, the strip formed by sawing 
diagonally from corner to corner a board six inches wide and 
three feet long. The cover (Fig. 101, g), which is removed 
in the figure, is large enough to cover the top and project one 
inch at both ends. It should be battened, and held in one 
piece by cleats (Fig. 101, A) four inches wide, nailed on to 
the ends. These will drop over the ends of the box, and thus 
hold the cover in place, and prevent rain and snow from 
driving in. When in place this slanting cover permits the 
rain to run off easily, and will dry quickly after a storm. 
By a single nail at each corner the four sides may be 
tacked together about the hives, when they can be packed 
in with straw (Fig 101), which should be carefully done if 
the day is cold, so as not to disquiet the bees. At the centre 
and bottom of the east side (Fig. 101, c), cut out a square 
eight inches each way, and between this and the hive place 
a bottomless tube (the top of this tube is represented as 
removed in figure to show entrance to hive), before putting 
around the straw and adding the cover. This box should be 
put in place before the bleak cold days of November, and 
retained in position till the stormy winds of April are passed 
by. This permits the bees to fly when very warm weather 
comes in winter or spring, and requires no attention from the 
apiarist. By placing two or three hives close together in 
autumn — yet never move the colonies more than three or 
four feet at any one time, as such removals involve the loss 
of many bees — one box may be made to cover all, and at less 
expense. Late in April these may be removed and packed 
away, and the straw carried away, or removed a short distance 
and burned. 

CHAFF HIVES. 

Messrs. Townley, Butler, Boot, and others, prefer chaff 
hives, which are simply double-walled hives, with the four or 
five inch chambers filled with chaff. The objection to these 
I take to be : First, Danger that so limited a space would 
not answer in severe seasons ; Second, That such cumbrous 



252 MANUAL OF THE AP1ARV. 

hives would be inconvenient to handle in summer ; and, 
Third, A matter of expense. That they would in part supply 
the place of shade, is, perhaps, in their favor, while Mr. A. I. 
Root thinks they are not expensive. 

WINTERING IN CELLAR OR HOUSE. 

With large apiaries the above method is expensive, and 
specialists may prefer a cellar or special depository, which I 
think are quite as safe, though they demand attention and 
perhaps labor in winter. After my experience in the winter 
of 1874 and 1875, losing all my bees by keeping them in a 
house with double walls filled in with saw-dust, in which the 
thermometer indicated a temperature below zero for several 
weeks, in which time my strongest colonies literally starved 
to death in the manner already described, I hesitate to 
recommend a house above ground for Michigan, though with 
very numerous colonies it might do. Such a house must, if 
it answer the purpose, keep an equable temperature, at least 
3° and not more than 10° above freezing, be perfectly dark, 
and ventilated with tubes above and below, so arranged as to 
be closed or opened at pleasui'e, and not admit a ray of light. 

A cellar in which we are sure of our ability to control the 
temperature, needs to be also dry, dark, and quiet, and venti- 
lated as described above. As already stated, the ventilator 
to bring air may well be made of tile, and pass through the 
earth for some feet and then open at the bottom of the 
cellar. If possible, the ventilator that carries the foul air off" 
should be connected with a stove pipe in a room above, with 
its lower end reaching to the bottom of the cellar. The 
College apiary cellar is grouted throughout, which makes it 
more dry and neat. Of course it should be thoroughly drained. 

The colonies should be put into the depository when the 
hives are dry, before cold weather, and should remain 
till April ; though in January and March, if there are 
days that are warm, they should be taken out and the bees 
permitted to fly, though not unless they seem uneasy and 
soil the entrance to their hives. Always when taken out 
they should be placed on their old stands, so that no bees 
may be lost. Towards night, when all are quiet, return 
them to the cellar. I would not remove bees till towards 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 253 

night, as it is better that they have a good flight, and then 
become quiet. When moved out it is very desirable to brush 
away all dead bees which is an argument in favor of a movable 
bottom-board. In moving the hives, great care should be 
exercised not to jar them. It were better if the bees should 
not know that they were being moved at all. 

That the moisture may be absorbed, I cover the bees with 
a quilt, made of coarse factory cloth, enclosing a layer of 
cotton batting. Above this I fill in with straw which is 
packed in so closely that the cover may be removed without 
the straw falling out. If desirable the straw may be cut — 
or chaff' may be used — and may be confined in a bag made of 
factory, so that it resembles a pillow. I now use these and 
like them. This is not only an excellent absorbent, but 
preserves the heat, and may well remain, till the following 
June. 

I have found it advantageous, when preparing my bees for 
winter, in October, to contract the chamber by use of a divi- 
sion board. This is very desirable if wintered out doors, and 
with frames a foot square is very easily accomplished. By 
use of eight frames the space (one cubic foot) is very compact, 
and serves to economize the heat, not only in winter, but in 
spring. By thus using a division board with only three 
frames, I have been very successful in wintering nuclei. We 
have only to guard against low temperature. 

Perhaps I ought to say that all colonies should be strong 
in autumn ; but I have said before, never have weak colonies. 
Yet for fear some have been negligent. I remark that weak 
colonies should be united in preparing for winter. To do this, 
approximate the colonies each day four or five feet till they 
are side by side. Now remove the poorest queen, then smoke 
thoroughly, sprinkle both colonies with sweetened water 
scented with essence of peppermint, putting a sufficient number 
of the best frames and all the bees into one of the hives, and 
then set this midway between the position of the hives at the 
commencement of the uniting. The bees will unite peaceably, 
and make a strong colony. Uniting colonies may pay at 
other seasons. It may seem rash to some, yet I fully believe 
that if the above suggestions are carried out in full, I may 
guarantee successful wintering. But if we do lose our bees — 



254 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

with all our hives, combs and honey, we can buy colonies in 
the spring, with a perfect certainty of making 200 or 300 per 
cent, on our investment. Even with the worst condition of 
things, we are still ahead, in way of profit, of most other 
vocations. 

BURYING BEES. 

Another way to winter safely and very economically, is to 
bury the bees. If this is practiced the ground should either 
be sandy or well drained. If we can choose a side-hill it should 
be done. Beneath the hives and around them, straw should 
be placed. I should advise leaving the entrance well open, 
yet secure against miee. The hives should all be placed 
beneath the surface level of the earth, then form a mound 
above them sufficient to preserve against extreme warmth or 
cold. A trench about the mound to carry the water ofF 
quickly is desirable. In this arrangement the ground acts as 
a moderator. Five colonies thus treated the past winter, 
(1877-8) lost all told less than one-half gill of bees. As this 
method has not been so long tried, as the others, I would 
suggest caution. Try it with a few colonies, till you are 
assured as to the best arrangement, and of its efficacy. I am 
inclined to think that it is next to a good snow-bank, as a 
winter repository. 

SPRING DWINDLING. 

As already suggested, this is not to be feared if we keep 
our bees breeding till late autumn. It may be further 
prevented by forbidding late autumn flights, frequent flights 
in winter, when the weather is warm, and too early flying in 
spring. These may all be curtailed or prevented by the pack- 
ing system as described above, as thus prepared the bees will 
not feel the warmth, and so will remain quiet in the hive. 
Nine colonies which I have packed have been remarkably 
quiet, and are in excellent condition this, February 25th, 
while two others unpacked have flown day after day, much, 
I fear, to their injury. I would leave bees in the packing 
till near May, and in the cellar or ground, till early flowers 
bloom, that we may secure against too rapid demise of bees in 
spring. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 255 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE HOUSE APIARY. 

DESCRIPTION. 

This is a double-walled house, which may he rectangular 
or octagonal in form. The outer wall should be of brick, and 
made as thin as possible. Inside of this there should be 
wooden strips two-inches thick, which should receive a layer 
of paper-sheeting inside, which may be held by nailing strips 
two-inches wide immediately inside the first mentioned strips. 
These last strips should receive lath, after which all should 
be plastered. This may cost more than a purely wooden 
structure, but it will be more nearly frost-proof than any 
other kind of wall, and in the end will be the cheapest. 
There will be two dead air-chambers, each two inches deep, 
one between the paper and brick, the other between the paper 
and the plaster. The entire wall will be at least eight inches 
thick. If desired, it may be made less thick by using one- 
inch strips, though for our very severe winters the above is 
none too thick. The doors and windows should be double and 
, should all shut closely against rubber. The outer ones should 
consist of glass, and should be so hung as to swing out, and 
in hot weather should be replaced with door, and window- 
screens, of coarse, painted, wire gauze. A small window just 
above each colony of bees is quite desirable. 

Somewhere in the walls there should be a ventilating tube 
— a brick flue would be very good — which should open into 
the room just above the floor. Above it might open into the 
attic, which should be well aired. Ventilators such as are 
so common on barns might be used. 

The pipe for admitting air, should, as in the cellar before 
described, pass through the ground and enter the floor from 
below. A good cellar, well ventilated and thoroughly dry 
will be convenient, and should not be neglected. I would 
have the building but one story, with joists in ceiling above 



256 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

eight inches thick. Above these I would sheet with building 
paper, fastened by nailing sti'ips two inches deep on top, 
above which I would ceil with matched boards. I should 
lath and plaster below the joists. The hives, which are to be 
kept constantly in this house, may rest on two rows of shelves, 
one at the floor, the other three feet high, and should be ar- 
ranged for both top and side storing in the small section' 
frames. Indeed, the hive need only consist of the two rab- 
beted side-boards (Fig. 30, c), and a division-board with 
quilt. The entrances of course pass through the wall. An 
alighting-board, so hinged as to be let down in summer, but 
tightly closed over the entrance during very severe winter 
weather, I should think would be very desirable. Between 
the double windows, which it will be remembered shut closely 
against rubber, sacks of chaff may be placed in winter, if 
found necessary to keep the proper temperature. With few 
colonies this might be very necessary. The adjacent entrances 
should vary in color, so that young queens would not go 
estray, when they returned from their ''marriage flight." 

ARE THEY DESIRABLE ? 

As yet, I think this question cannot be answered. Some 
who have tried them, among whom are Messrs. Russell and 
Heddon, of this State, pronounce against them. Perhaps 
they have faulty houses, perhaps they have had too brief an ex- 
perience to judge correctly. Others, among whom are Messrs., 
A. I. Root, Burch, and Nellis, have tried them, and are loud 
in their favor. I think these first trials are hardly conclusive, 
as perfection seldom comes in any system with the first expe- 
rience. That the early use of these houses has met with so 
much favor, seems to argue that with more experience, and 
greater perfection, they may become popular. Yet I would 
urge people to be slow to adopt these costly houses, as enough 
will do so to thoroughly test the matter ; when, if they prove 
a desideratum, all can build ; whereas, if they prove worth- 
less, we shall not have to regret money squandered, in the 
adoption of what was of doubtful value. 

THE CASE AS IT NOW STANDS. 

The desirable points as they now appear, are : First. The 
bees are in condition to winter with no trouble or anxiety. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 257 

Second. The bees are handled in the house, and as they fly at 
once to the windows, where they can be suffered to escape, 
they are very easily and safely handled, even with little or no 
protection. Third. As we can extract, manipulate honey 
boxes, etc., right in the same house, it is desirable on the 
score of convenience. Fourth. As the bees are protected 
from the sudden rise of the out-door temperature, they will 
be kept from frequent flights during the cold, forbidding days 
of fall, winter and spring, and will thus be more secure against 
spring dwindling. Fifth. As the bees are so independent of 
out-door heat, because of the thick walls, with intervening- 
air-spaces, they are found less inclined to swarm. Sixth. 
We can lock our house, and know that thieves cannot steal 
our hard-earned property. 

The objections to them are : First. The bees leave the 
hives while being handled, crawl about the house, from which 
it is difficult to dislodge them, especially the young bees. 
This objection may disappear with improved houses and prac- 
tice. Second. In very severe winters, like that of 1874 and 
1875, they may not offer sufficient protection, yet they would 
be much safer than chaff hives, as there would be many colo- 
nies all mutually helping each other to maintain the requisite 
temperature, and the walls might be even thicker than speci- 
fied above, without any serious inconvenience. Third. Some 
think it pleasanter and more desirable to handle bees out- 
doors, where all is unconflned. Fourth. The cost of the 
house ; yet this is only for once in a life-time, and saves pro- 
viding shade, sawdust, packing-boxes, complex hives, etc. 

So, we see the question is too complex to be settled except 
by careful experiment, and this, too, for a series of years. 
There are so many now in use in the various States, that the 
question must soon be settled. I predict that these structures 
will stow more and more into favor, 



258 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

EVILS THAT CONFRONT THE APIARIST. 

There are various dangers that are likely to vex the apia- 
rist, and even to stand in the way of successful apiculture. — 
Yet, with knowledge, most, if not all of these evils may be 
wholly vanquished. Among these are : Robbing among the 
bees, disease, and depredations from other animals. 

ROBBING. 

This is a trouble that often very greatly annoys the inex- 
perienced. Bees only rob at such times as the general 
scarcity of nectar forbids honest gains. When the question 
comes : Famine or theft, like many another, they are not 
slow to choose the latter. It is often induced by working 
with the bees at such times, especially if honey is scattered 
about or left lying around the apiary. It is especially to be 
feared in spring, when colonies are apt to be weak in both 
honey and bees, and thus are unable to protect their own 
meager stores. The remedies for this evil are not far to 
seek : 

First. Strong colonies are very rarely molested, and are 
almost sure to defend themselves against marauders ; hence, 
it is only the weaklings of the apiarist's flock that are in 
danger. Therefore, regard for our motto, " Keep all colo- 
nies strong," will secure against harm from this cause. 

Second. Italians, as before stated, are fully able, and quite 
as ready, to protect their rights against neighboring tramps. 
Woe be to the thieving bee that dares to violate the sacred 
rights of the home of our beautiful Italians. For such 
temerity is almost sure to cost the intruder its life. 

But weak colonies, like our nuclei, and those too of black 
bees, are still easily kept from harm. Usually, the closing 
of the entrance so that but a single bee can pass through, is 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 259 

all sufficient. With the hive we have recommended, this is 
easily accomplished by simply moving the hive back. 

Another way to secure such colonies against robbing is to 
move them into the cellar for a few days. This is a further 
advantage, as less food is eaten, and the strength of the indi- 
vidual bees is conserved by the quiet, and as there is no 
nectar in the fields no loss is suffered. 

In all the work of the apiary at times of no honey gather- 
ing, we cannot be too careful to keep all honey from the bees 
unless placed in the hives. The hives, too, should not be 
kept open long at a time. Neat, quick work should be the 
watch-word. During times when robbers are essaying to 
practice their nefarious designs, the bees are likely to be 
more than usually irritable, and likely to resent intrusion ; 
hence the importance of more than usual caution, if it is 
desired to introduce a queen. 

DISEASE. 

The common dysentery — indicated by the bees soiling their 
hives, as they void their feces within instead of without — 
which has been so free, of late, to work havoc in our apiaries, 
is, without doubt, I think, consequent upon wrong manage- 
ment on the part of the apiarist, as already suggested in 
Chapter XVII. As the methods to prevent this have already 
been sufficiently considered, we pass to the terrible 

FOUL BROOD. 

This disease, said to have been known to Aristotle — though 
this is doubtful, as a stench attends common dysentery — 
though it has occurred in our State as well as in States 
about us, is not familiar to me, I having never seen but one 
case, and that on Kelly's Island, in the summer of 1875, 
where I found it had reduced the colonies on that Island to 
two. No bee malady can compare with this in malignancy. 
By it Dzierzon once lost his whole apiary of 500 colonies. — 
Mr. E. Rood, first President of the Michigan Association, has 
lost his bees two or three times by this same terrible plague. 

The symptoms are as follows : Decline in the prosperity 
of the colony, because of failure to rear brood. The brood 
seems to putrefy, becomes " brown and salvy,"and gives off a 



260 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

stench, which is by no means agreeable, while later, the caps 
are concave instead of convex, and have a little hole through 
them. 

There is no longer any doubt as to the cause of this fear- 
ful plague. Like the fell " Pebrine," which came so near 
exterminating the " silk worm," and a most lucrative and 
extensive industry in Europe, it, as conclusively shown by 
Drs. Preusz and ShOnfeld, of Germany, is the result of fun- 
gous or vegetable growth. Shonfeld not only infected healthy 
bee larvae, but those of other insects, both by means of the 
putrescent foul brood, and by taking the spores. 

Fungoid growths are very minute, and the spores are so 
infinitesimally small as often to elude the sharp detection of 
the expert microscopist. Most of the terrible, contagious 
diseases tha-t human flesh is heir to, like typhus, diphtheria, 
cholera, small pox, &c, &c, are now thought to be due 
to microscopic germs, and hence to be spread from home 
to home, and from hamlet to hamlet, it is only necessary 
that the spores, the minute seeds, either by contact or by 
some sustaining air current, be brought to new soil of flesh 
blood or other tissue — their garden spot — when they at once 
spring into growth, and thus lick up the very vitality of 
their victims. The huge mushroom will grow in a night. So 
too, these other plants — the disease germs — will develop 
with marvelous rapidity ; and hence the horrors of yellow 
fever, scarlatina, and cholera. 

To cure such diseases, the fungi must be killed. To pre- 
vent their spread, the spores must be destroyed, or else con- 
fined. But as these are so small, so light, and so invisible — 
easily borne and wafted by the slightest zephyr of summer, 
this is often a matter of the utmost difficulty. 

In " Foul Brood " these germs feed on the larvae of the 
bees, and thus convert life and vigor into death and decay. 
If we can kill this miniature forest of the hive, and destroy 
the spores, we shall extirpate the terrible plague. 

REMEDIES. 

If we can find a substance that will prove fatal to the 
fungi, and yet not injure the bees, the problem is solved. 
Our (rerman scientists — those masters in scientific research 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 261 

and discovery, have found this valuable fungicide in salicylic 
acid, an extract from the same willows that give us pollen 
and nectar. This cheap white powder is easily soluble in 
alcohol, and when mixed with borax in water. 

Mr. Hilbert, one of the most thoughtful of German bee- 
keepers, was the first to effect a radical cure of foul brood in 
his apiary by the use of this substance. He dissolved fifty 
grains of the acid in five hundred grains of pure spirits. 
One drop of this in a grain of distilled water is the mixture 
he applied. Mr. C. F. Muth, from whom the above facts as 
to Herr Hilbert are gathered, suggests a variation in the 
mixture. 

Mr. Muth suggests an improvement, which takes advantage 
of the fact that the acid, which alone is very insoluble 
in water, is, when mixed with borax, soluble. His recipe 
is as follows : One hundred and twenty-eight grains of 
salicylic acid, one hundred and twenty-eight grains of soda 
borax, and sixteen ounces distilled water. There is no reason 
why water without distillation should not do as well. 

This remedy is applied as follows ; First uncap all the brood, 
then throw the fluid over the comb in a fine spray. This 
will not injure the bees, but will prove fatal to the fungi. 

If the bees are removed to an empty hive, and given no 
comb for three or four days, till they have digested all the 
honey in their stomachs, and then prevented visiting the 
affected hive, they are said to be out of danger. It would- 
seem that the spores are in the honey, and by taking that, the 
contagion is administered to the young bees. The honey may 
be purified from these noxious germs, by subjecting it to the 
boiling temperature, which is generally, if not always, fatal to 
the spores of fungoid life. By immersing the combs in a 
salicylic acid solution, or sprinkling them with the same, 
they would be rendered sterile, and could be used without 
much fear of spreading contagion. The disease is probably 
spread by robber bees visiting affected hives, and carrying 
with them in the honey the fatal germs. 

I have found that a paste made of gum tragacanth and 
water is very superior, and I much prefer it for either gen- 
eral or special use to gum Arabic. Yet it soon sours 
— which means that it is nourishing these fungoid plants — 



262 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

and thus becomes disagreeable. I have found that a very 
little salicylic acid will render it sterile, and thus preserve it 
indefinitely. 

ENEMIES Or BEES. 

Swift was no mean entomologist, as shown in the follow- 
ing stanza : 

" The little fleas that do us tease. 
Have lesser fleas to bite them, 
And these again have lesser fleas, 
And so ad infinitum," 

Bees are no exception to this law, as they have to brave 
the attacks of reptiles, birds, and other insects. In fact, they 
are beset with perils at home, and perils abroad, perils by night 
and perils by day. 

the bee moth — Galleria Cereana, Fabr. 
This insect belongs to the family of snout moths, Pyra- 
lidae. This snout is not the tongue, but the palpi, which 
fact was not known by Mr. Langstroth, who is usually so 

Fig. 102. 




accurate, as he essayed to correct Dr. Harris, who stated cor- 
rectly, that the tongue, the ligula, was "very short and 
hardly visible." This family includes the destructive hop 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



263 



moth, and the noxious meal and clover moths, and its mem- 
bers are very readily recognized by their unusually long 
palpi, the so-called snouts. 

The eggs of the bee moth are white, globular and very 
small. These are usually pushed into crevices by the female 
moth as she extrudes them, which she can easily do by aid 
of her spy-glass-like ovipositor. They may be laid in the 
hive, in the crevice underneath it or about the entrance. — 
Soon these eggs hatch, when the gray, dirty looking cater- 
pillars, with brown heads, seek the comb on which they feed. 
To better protect themselves from the bees, they wrap them- 
selves in a silken tube (Fig. 102) which they have power to 
spin. They remain in this tunnel of silk during all their 
growth, enlarging it as they eat. By looking closely, the 
presence of these larvae may be known by this robe of glis- 
tening silk, as it extends in branching outlines (Fig. 103) 
along the surface of the comb. A more speedy detection, 

Fig. 103. 




^*^ 



even, than the defaced comb, comes from the particles of 
comb, intermingled with the powder-like droppings, of the 
caterpillars, which will always be seen on the bottom-board 
in case the moth-larvae are at work. Soon, in three or four 
weeks, the larvae are full grown (Fig. 104). Now the six 



264 



MANUAL OF THE AP1ARV. 



jointed, and the ten prop-legs — making sixteen in all, the usual 

number of caterpillars — are plainly visible. These larvae 

are about an inch long, and shows by their plump appearance,. 

Fig. 104. 




that they at least, can digest comb. They now spin their 
cocoons, either in some crevice about the hive, or, if very nu- 
merous, singly (Fig. 105, a) or in clusters (Fig. 105, b) on the 
comb, or even in the drone-cells (Fig. 105, a) in which they 




become pupae, and in two weeks, even less, sometimes, during 
the extreme heat of summer, the moths again appear. In 
winter, they may remain as pupae for months. The moths or 

Fig. 106. 




millers — sometimes incorrectly called moth-millers — are of 
an obscure gray color, and thus so mimic old boards, that they 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 265 

are very readily passed unobserved by the apiarist. They are 
about three-fourths of an inch long, and expand (Fig. 106) 
nearly one and one-fourth inches. The females (Fig. 107) are 
darker than the males (Fig. 107), possess a longer snout, and 
are usually a little larger. The wings, when the moths are 
quiet (Fig. 107) are flat on the back for a narrow space, then 
slope very abruptly. They rest by day, yet, when disturbed, 
will dart forth with great swiftness, so Reuamur styled them 
"nimble-footed." They are active by night, when they essay 
Fig. 107. 




to enter the hive and deposit their one or two hundred eggs. 
If the females are held in the hand they will often extrude 
their eggs ; in fact, they have been known to do this even after 
the head and thorax were severed from the abdomen, and still 
more strange, while the latter was being dissected. 

It is generally stated that these are two-brooded, the first 
moths occurring in May, the second in August. Yet, as I 
have seen these moths in every month from May to Septem- 
ber, and as I have proved by actual observation that they may 
pass from egg to moth in less than six weeks, I think under 
favorable conditions there may be even three broods a year. 
It is true that the varied conditions of temperature — as the 
moth larvse may grow in a deserted hive, in one with few 
bees, or one crowded with bee life — will have much to do 
with the rapidity of development. Circumstances may so 
retard growth and development that there may not be more 
than two, and possibly, in extreme cases, more than one brood 
in a season. 

It is stated by Mr Quinby that a freezing temperature will 
kill these insects in all stages, while Mr. Betsinger thinks 
that a deserted hive is safe, neither of which assertions are 
correct. I have seen hives, whose bees were killed by the 



266 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

severe winter, crowded with moth pupae or chrysalids the 
succeeding summer. I have subjected both larvas and pupae 
to the freezing, temperature without injuring them. I 
believe, in very mild winters, the moth and the chrysalids 
might be so protected as to escape unharmed, even outside 
the hive. It is probable too, that the insects may pass the 
winter in any one of the various stages. 

HISTORY. 

These moths were known to writers of antiquity, as even 
Aristotle tells of their injuries. They are wholly of oriental 
origin, and are often referred to by European writers as a 
terrible pest. Dr. Kirtland, the able scientist, the first Pres- 
ident of our American Bee Convention, whose decease we 
have just had to mourn, once said in a letter to Mr. Lang- 
stroth, that the moth was first introduced into America in 
1805, though bees had been introduced long before. They 
first seemed to bevery destructive. It is quite probable, as 
has been suggested, that the bees had to learn to fear and 
repel them ; for, unquestionably, bees do grow in wisdom. — 
In fact, may not the whole of instinct be inherited knowl- 
edge, which once had to be acquired by the animal. Surely 
bees and other animals learn to battle new enemies, and vary 
their habits with changed conditions, and they also transmit 
this knowledge and their acquired habits to their offspring, 
as illustrated by setter and pointer dogs. In time, may not 
this account for all those varied actions, usually ascribed to 
instinct? At least, I believe the bee to be a creature of no 
small intelligence. 

REMEDIES. 

In Europe, late writers give very little space to this moth. 
Once a serious pest, it has now ceased to alarm, or even dis- 
quiet the intelligent apiarist. In fact, we may almost call it 
a blessed evil, as it will destroy the bees ot the heedless, and 
thus prevent injury to the markets by their unsalable honey, 
while to the attentive bee-keeper -it will work no injury at 
all. Neglect and ignorance are the moth breeders. 

As already stated, Italian bees are rarely injured b}' 
moths, and strong colonies never. As the enterprising apia- 
rist will only possess these, it is clear that he is free from 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 267 

danger. The intelligent apiarist will also provide, not only 
against weak, but queenless colonies as well, which from their 
abject discouragement, are the surest victims to moth inva- 
sion. Knowing that destruction is sure, they seem, if not 
to court death, to make no effort to delay it. 

In working with bees, an occasional web will be seen 
glistening in the comb, which should be picked out with a 
knife till the manufacturer — the ruthless larva — is found, 
when it should be crushed. Any larva seen about the bot- 
tom board, seeking a place to spin its cocoon, or any pupse, 
either on comb or in crack, should also be killed. If, 
through carelessness, a colony has become hopelessly victim- 
ized by these filthy, stinking, wax devourers, then the bees 
and any combs not attacked should be transferred to another 
hive, after which the old hive should be sulphured by use of 
the smoker, as before described (page 216), then by giving one or 
two each of the remaining combs to strong colonies, after kill- 
ing any pupae that may be on them, they will be cleaned 
and used, while by giving the enfeebled colony brood, if it 
has any vigor remaining, and if necessary a good queen, it 
will soon be rejoicing in strength and prosperity. 

We have already spoken of caution as to comb honey and 
frames of comb (page 216), and so need not speak further of 
them. 

bee killer — Asilus Missouriensis, Riley. 

This is a two-winged fly, of the predacious family Asilidaa, 
which attacks, and takes captive the bee and then feeds upon 
its fluids. It is confined to the southern part of our country. 

The fly (Fig. 108) has a long, pointed abdomen, strong 
wings, and is very powerful. I have seen an allied species 
attack and overcome the powerful tiger-beetle, whereupon I 
took them both with my net, and now have them pinned, as 
they were captured, in our College cabinet. These flies de- 
light in the warm sunshine, are very quick on the wing, and 
are thus not easily captured. It is to be hoped that they 
will not become very numerous. If they should, I hardly 
know how they could be kept from their evil work. Fright- 
ening them, or catching with a net might be tried, yet these 
methods would irritate the bees, and need to be tried before 



268 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



they are recommended. I have received specimens of this 
fly from nearly every Southern State. There are very similar 
flies North, belonging to the same genus, but as yet we have 

Fig. 108. 




no account of their attacking bees, though such a habit might 
easily be acquired, and attacks here would not be surprising. 
A fly very similar to the above in appearance, and possessed 
of the same evil habits, is the Nebraska bee-killer — Promachus 
bastardi, Loew. 

Bee-Louse — Branla Coeca, Nitsch. 

This louse (Fig. 109) is a wingless Dipteron, and one of 
the uniques among insects. It is a blind, spider-like parasite, 

Fig. 109. 





Imago. 



and serves as a very good connecting link between insects 
and spiders, or, still better, between the Diptera, where it 
belongs, and the Hemiptera, which contains the bugs and 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 269 

most of the lice. It assumes the semi-pupa state almost as 
soon as hatched, and strangest of all, is, considering the size 
of the bee on which it lives, and from which it sucks its nour- 
ishment, enormously large. Two or three, and sometimes even 
more, (the new Encyclopedia Britanica says 50 or 100), are 
often found on a single bee. When we consider their great size 
we cannot wonder that they very soon devitalize the bees. 

These, as yet, have done little damage, except in the south 
of Continental Europe. The fact that they have not become 
naturalized in the northern part of the Continent, England 
or America, would go to show that there is something inimi- 
cal to their welfare in our climate, especially as they are 
constantly being introduced, coming as hangers-on to our im- 
ported bees. Within a year I have received them from no 
less than three sources — twice from New York and once 
from Pennsylvania — each time taken from bees just received 
from Italy. The only way that I could suggest to rid bees 
of them would be to make the entrance to the hive small, so 
.that as the bees enter, they would be scraped off. 



IMPORTANT SUGGESTION. 

In view of the serious nature of this pest and the difficulty in 
the way of its extinction, I would urge importers, and people 
receiving imported queens, to be very careful to see that 
these lice, which, from their size, are so easily discovered, 
are surely removed before any queen hai-boring them is intro- 
duced. This advice is especially important, in view of the 
similarity in climate of our own beautiful South, to the sunny 
slopes of France and Italy. Very likely the lice could not 
flourish in our Southern States, but there would be great 
cause to fear the results of its introduction into our Eldo- 
rado, the genial States of the West. In California, they 
might be even worse than the drouth, as they might come as 
a permanent, not a temporary evil. 

bee hawk — Libellula. 

This large, fine lace wing is a neuropterous insect. It 
works in the Southern States and is called Mosquito-hawk. — 



270 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

Insects of the same genus are called dragon flies, devil's 
darning-needles, &c. These are exceedingly predacious. In 
fact, the whole sub-order is insectivorous. From its four 
netted, veined wings, we can tell it at once from the asilus 
before mentioned, which has but two wings. The Bee or 
Mosquito-hawk is resplendent with metallic green, while the 
Bee T^iller is of sober gray. The Mosquito Hawk is not 
inaptly named, as it not only preys on other insects, swoop- 
ing down upon them with the dexterity of a hawk, but its 
graceful gyrations, as it sports in the warm sunshine at noon- 
day, are not unlike those of our graceful hawks and falcons. 
These insects are found most abundant near water, as they 
lay their eggs in water, where the larvae live and feed upon 
other animals. The larvae are peculiar in breathing by gills 
in their rectum. The same water that bathes these organs 
and furnishes oxygen, is sent out in a jet, and thus sends the 
insect darting along. The larvae also possess enormous jaws, 
which formidable weapons are masked till it is desired to use 
them, when the dipper-shaped mask is dropped or unhinged 
and the terrible jaws open and close upon the unsuspecting 
victim, which has but a brief time to bewail its temerity. 

A writer from Georgia, in Gleanings, volume 6, page 35, 
states that these destroyers are easily scared away, or brought 
down by boys with whips, who soon become as expert in 
capturing the insects, as are the latter in seizing the bees. The 
insects are very wild and wary, and I should suppose this 
method would be very efficient. 

TACHINA FLY. 

From descriptions which I have received, I feel certain 
Fig. 110. 




that there is a two-winged fly, probably of the genus Tachina 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 271 

(Fig. 110), that works on bees. I have never seen these, 
though I have repeatedly requested those who have, to send 
them to me. My friend, Mr. J. L. Davis, put some sick 
looking bees into a cage, and hatched the flies which he told 
me looked not unlike a small house fly. It is the habit 
of these flies, which belong to the same family as our house 
flies, which they much resemble, to lay their eggs on other- 
insects. Their young, upon hatching, burrow into the insect 
that is being victimized, and grow by eating it. It would 
be difficult to cope with this evil, should it become of great 
magnitude. We may well hope that this habit of eating 
bees is an exceptional one with it. 

SPIDERS. 

These sometimes spread their nets so as to capture bees. 
If porticoes — which are, I think, worse than a useless ex- 
pense — are omitted, there will very seldom be any cause for 
complaints against the spiders, which on the whole are friends. 
As the bee-keeper who would permit spiders to worry his bees 
would not read books, I will discuss "this subject no further. 

ANTS. 

These cluster about the hives in spring for warmth, and 
seldom, if ever, I think, do any harm. Should the apiarist 
feel nervous, he can very readily brush them away, or destroy 
them by use of any of the fly poisons which are kept in ihe 
markets. As these poisons are made attractive by adding 
sweets, we must be careful to preclude the bees from gaining 
access to them. As we should use them in spring, and as we 
then need to keep the quilt or honey-board close above the 
bees, and as the ants cluster above the brood chamber, it is- 
not difficult to practice poisoning. One year I tried Paris 
green with perfect success. 

WASPS. 

I have never seen bees injured by wasps. In the South r 
as in Europe, we hear of such depredations. I have received 
wasps, sent by our southern brothers, which were caught 
destroying bees. The wasps are very predacious, and do 



272 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

immense benefit by capturing and eating our insect pests. I 
bave seen wasps carry off " currant-worms " with a celerity 
that was most refreshing. 

As the solitary wasps are too few in numbers to do much 
damage — even if they ever do any — any great damage which 
may occur would doubtless come from the social paper- 
makers. In this case, we have only to find the nests and 
apply the torch, or hold the muzzle of a shot-gun to the nest 
and shoot. This should be done at nightfall when the wasps 
have all gathered home. Let us not forget that the wasps do 
much good, and so not practice wholesale slaughter unless we 
have strong evidence against them. 

the king bird — Tyrannus Carolinensis. 

This bird, often called the bee-martin, is one of the fly- 
catchers, a very valuable family of birds, as they are wholly 
insectivorous, and do immense good by destroying our insect 
pests. The king bird is the only one of them in the United 
States that deserves censure. Another, the chimney swal- 
low of Europe, has the same evil habit. Our chimney swallow 
has no evil ways. I am sure, from personal observation, 
that these birds capture and eat the workers, as well as drones j 
and I dare say, they would pay no more respect to the finest 
Italian Queen. Yet, in view of the good that these birds do, 
unless they are far more numerous and troublesome than I 
have ever observed them to be, I should certainly be slow to 
recommend the death warrant. 

THE TOADS. 

The same may be said of the toads, which may often be 
seen sitting demurely at the entrance of the hives, and lap- 
ping up the full-laden bees with the lightning-like movement 
of their tongues, in a manner which can but be regarded 
with interest, even by him who suffers loss. Mr. Moon, the 
well known apiarist, made this an objection to low hives ; 
yet, the advantage of such hives far more than compensates, 
and with a bottom-board, such as described in the chapter 
on hives, wc shall find that the toads do very little damage. 

MICE. 

These little pests are a consummate nuisance about the 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 273 

apiary. They enter the hives in winter, mutilate the comb, 
irritate, perhaps destroy, the bees, and create a very offensive 
stench. They often greatly injure comb which is outside the 
hive, destroy smokers, by eating the leather off the bellows, 
and if they get at the seeds of honey plants, they never re- 
treat till they make a complete work of destruction. 

In the house and cellar, these plagues should be. by use of 
cat or trap, completely exterminated. If we winter on the 
summer stands, the entrance should be so contracted that mice 
cannot enter the hive. In case of packing as I have recom- 
mended, I should prefer a more ample opening, which may be 
safely secured by taking a piece of wire cloth or perforated 
tin, and tacking it over the entrance, letting it come within 
one-fourth of an inch of the bottom-board. This will give 
more air, and still preclude the entrance of these miserable 
vermin. (See Appendix, page 293). 



274 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 



CHAPTER XX. 
CALENDAR AND AXIOMS. 

WORK FOR DIPPERENT MONTHS.* 

Though every live apiarist will take one, at least, of the three 
excellent journals relating to this art, printed in our country, 
in which the necessary work of each month will he detailed, 
yet it may he well to give some brief hints in this place. 

JANUARY. 

During this month the bees will need little attention. — 
Should the bees in the cellar or depository become uneasy, 
which will not happen if the requisite precautions are taken, 
and there come a warm day, it were well to set them on their 
summer stands, that they may enjoy a purifying flight. At 
night when all are again quiet return them to the cellar. — 
While out I would clean the bottom-boards, especially if 
there are many dead bees. This is the time, too, to read, 
visit, study and plan for the ensuing season's work. 

FEBRUARY. 

No advice is necessary further than that given for Janu- 
ary, though if the bees have a good fly in January, they will 
scarcely need attention in this month. The presence of snow 
on the ground need not deter the apiarist from giving his 
bees a flight, providing the day is warm and still. It is 
better to let them alone if they are quiet. 

MARCH. 

Bees should still be kept housed, and those outside still retain 
about them the packing of straw, shavings, &c. Frequent 
flights do no good, and wear out the bees. Colonies that are 
uneasy, and besmear their hives should be set out, and 
allowed a good flight and then returned. 

*These dates are arranged for the Northern States, where the fruit trees blossom 
about the first of May. By noting these flowers, the dates can be easily changed 
to suit any locality 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 275 

The colony or colonies from which we desire to rear queens 
and drones should now be fed, to stimulate breeding. By 
careful pruning, too, we may and should prevent the rearing 
of drones in any but the best colonies. If from lack of care 
the previous autumn, any of our stocks are short of stores, now 
is when it will be felt. In such cases feed either honey, sugar, 
syrup, or place candy on top of the frames beneath the quilt. 

APRIL. 

Early in this month the bees may all be set out. It will 
be best to feed all, and give all access to flour, when they 
will work at it, though usually they can get pollen as soon 
as they can fly out to advantage. Keep the brood chamber 
contracted so that the frames will all be covered, and cover 
well above the bees to economize heat. 

MAY. 

Prepare nuclei to start extra queens. Feed sparingly till 
bloom appears. Grive room for storing. Extract if neces- 
sary, and keep close watch, that you may anticipate and 
forestall any attempt to swarm. Now, too, is the best time 
to transfer. 

JUNE. 

Keep all colonies supplied with vigorous, prolific queens. 
Divide the colonies, as may be desired, especially enough to 
prevent attempts at swarming. Extract if necessary or best ; 
adjust frames or sections, if comb honey is desired, and be 
sure to keep all the white clover honey, in whatever form 
taken, separate from all other. Now is the best time. to 
Italianize. 

JULY. 

The work this month is about the same as that of June. — 
Supersede all poor and feeble queens. Keep the basswood 
honey by itself, and remove boxes or frames as soon as full. 
Be sure that queens and workers have plenty of room to do 
their best, and suffer not the hot sun to strike the hives. 

AUGUST. 

Do not fail to supersede impotent queens. Between bass- 



276 MANUAL OF THE AP1ARV. 

wood and fall bloom it may pay to feed sparingly. Give 
plenty of room for queen and workers as fall storing com- 
mences. 

SEPTEMBER. 

Remove all surplus boxes and frames as soon as storing 
ceases, which usually occurs about the middle of this month ; 
feed sparingly till the first of October. If robbing occurs, 
contract the entrance of the hive robbed. If it is desired to 
feed honey or sugar for winter, it should be done the last of 
this month. 

OCTOBER. 

Prepare colonies for winter. See that all have at least 
thirty pounds, by weight, of good, capped honey, and that all 
are strong in bees. Contract the chamber, by using division 
board, and cover well with the quilt. Be sure that one or 
two central frames of comb contain many empty cells, and 
that all have a central hole through which the bees can pass. 

NOVEMBER. 

Before the cold days come, remove the bees to the cellar 
or depository, or pack about those left out on the summer 
Stands. 

DECEMBER. 

Now is the time to make hives, honey-boxes, &c, for the 
coming year. Also labels for hives. These may just con- 
tain the name of the colony, in which case the full record 
will be kept in a book ; or the label may be made to contain 
a full register as to time of formation, age of queen, &c, &c. 
Slates are also used for the same purpose. 

I know from experience that any who heed all of the above 
may succeed in bee-keeping, — may win a double success : — 
Receive pleasure and make money. I feel sure that many 
experienced apiarists will find advice that it may pay to 
follow. It is probable that errors abound, and certain that 
much remains unsaid, for of all apiarists it is true that what 
they do not know is greatly in excess of what they do know. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 277 

AXIOMS. 

The following axioms, given by Mr. Langstroth, are just as 
true to-day as they were when written by that noted author: 

There are a few first principles in bee-keeping which 
ought to be as familiar to the Apiarist as the letters of the 
alphabet. 

First. Bees gorged with honey never volunteer an attack- 
Second. Bees may always be made peaceable by inducing 
them to accept of liquid sweets. 

Third. Bees, when frightened by smoke or by drumming 
on their hives, fill themselves with honey and lose all dispo- 
sition to sting, unless they are hurt. 

Fourth. Bees dislike any quick movements about their 
hives, especially any motion which jars their combs. 

Fifth. In districts where forage is abundant only for a 
short period, the largest yield of honey will be secured by a 
very moderate increase of stocks. 

Sixth. A moderate increase of colonies in any one season, 
will, in the long run, prove to be the easiest, safest, and 
cheapest mode of managing bees. 

Seventh. Queenless colonies, unless supplied with a queen, 
will inevitably dwindle away, or be destroyed by the bee- 
moth, or by robber-bees. 

Eighth. The formation of new colonies should ordinarily 
be confined to the season when bees are accumulating 
honey ; and if this, or any other operation, must be per- 
formed when forage is scarce, the greatest precautions 
should be used to prevent robbing. 

The essence of all profitable bee-keeping is contained in 
Oettl's G-olden Rule : keep your stocks strong. If you 
cannot succeed in doing this, the more money you invest in 
bees, the heavier will be your losses ; while, if your stocks are 
strong, you will show that you are a bee-master, as well as 
a bee-keeper, and may safely calculate on generous returns 
from your industrious subjects. 

" Keep all colonies strong," 



HISTORY OF MOVABLE FRAMES. 

Movable frames have revolutionized bee-keeping, and so 
out-rank the reaper and mower, and equal the cotton-gin. 
Few inventions have exerted so powerful an influence upon 
the art which they serve. Their history will ever be a sub- 
ject of exceeding interest to bee-keepers, and their inventor 
worthy the highest regard as the greatest benefactor of our 
art. In writing their history, I have no personal interest or 
bias, and am only impelled by a love of truth and justice. I 
am the more eager to write this history,' as some of our 
apiarists, and they among the best informed and most influ- 
ential (American Bee Journal, vol. 14, p. 380), are misin- 
formed in the premises. In obtaining the data fof this 
account, I am under many obligations to our great American 
master in apiculture, Rev. L. L. Langstroth, whose thorough 
knowledge and extensive library have been wholly at my 
command. 

We are informed by George Wheeler, in his "Journey into 
Greece," published in 1682, page 411, that the Greeks had 
partial control of the combs. " The tops" of the willow 
hives "are covered with broad flat sticks. Along each of 
these sticks the bees fasten their combs ; so that a comb may 
be taken out whole." 

Swammerdam had no control of the comb, nor had Reau- 
mur. The latter used narrow hives, which contained but two 
combs ; but these were stationary. Huber was the first to 
construct a hive which gave him control of the combs and 
access to the interior of the hive. In August, 1879, Huber 
wrote to Bonnet as follows : "I took several small fir boxes, 
a foot square and fifteen lines wide, and joined them together 
by hinges, so that they could be opened and shut like the 
leaves of a book. When using a hive of this description, we 
took care to fix a comb in each frame, and then introduced 
all the bees." — (Edinburgh edition of Huber, p. 4). Although 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



279 



Morlot and others attempted to improve this hive, it never 
gained favor with practical apiarists. 

The first person to adjust frames in a case appears to have 
been Mr. W. Augustus Munn, of England. I have in my 
possession a letter from Mr. Munn, dated November 9th, 
1863, in which he states that the hive " had been in use since 
1834." The first printed description of any of his hives ap- 
peared in the " Gardener's Chronicle" for 1843. This article 
was written by a lady, and signed " E. M. W." Its premature 
publication made it impossible for Mr. Munn to secure a 
Fig. 111. 




patent in Great Britain. In 1843 he secured a patent in 
France. The hive patented is fully described in his " De- 
scription of the Bar and Frame Hive," published in London, 
in 1844. There is also a figure (Fig. 111). I copy from the 
work which is before me, pp. 7 and 8 : " An oblong box is 
formed, about thirty inches long, sixteen inches high, and 
twelve inches broad. One of the long sides is constructed to 
open with hinges, and to hang on a level with the bottom. 
As many grooves half an inch broad, half an inch deep, and 



280 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



about 9^- inches long, are formed 1-J inches apart on the inside 
of the bottom of the box, as its length will admit. At the 
top are corresponding grooves to ' those made in the bottom 
of the box. The bee-frames are made of half inch mahogany, 
being 12 inches high, 9 inches long, and not more than half 
an inch broad, sliding into the fifteen grooves formed on the 
bottom, and kept securely in their places by the upper grooves," 
and by propolis, the author might well have added. American 
apiarists need not be told that such a hive would be wholly 
impracticable. Without bees in it, the changes of weather 
Fig. 112. 




would make the sliding of the frames very difficult ; with the 
bees inside, the removal of the frames would be practically 
impossible. 

In 1851 Mr. Munn issued a second edition of his book, in 
the preface of which I find the following : " Having materially 
simplified the bar-frame hive, by forming the ' oblong bar- 
frames' into ' triangular frames,' and making them lift out of 
the top, instead of the back of the bee-box, I have repub- 
lished the pamphlet." The triangular hive (Fig. 112) is 
described and figured, and is the same as found illustrated in 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 281 

Munn's "Bevan on the Honey Bee." This hive, although a 
possible improvement on the other, is costly, intricate, and 
still very impracticable. In the price-list of J. Pettitt, Dover, 
England, 1864, I find this hive priced at £3 3s., or about 
$15.00. From the figure we learn that there were some wide 
spaces about the frames. These would of course be filled 
with comb, and render the hives entirely unsuitable for com- 
mon use. That this hive lacked the essential requisites to 
success is evident from words penned by the inventor in 1863 : 
"The hive matters little if the pasturage is good." And it 
is easy to see from the complex arrangement of the frames, 
and the wide spaces about them, that as Mr. Munn said, 
referring to his hive, " When left to themselves the bees shut 
up the shop." Had invention stopped with Major Munn's 
hive, we should to-day be using the old box hive, and sighing 
in vain for a better. Neighbour well says (3d edition, p. 129) : 
" Probably the reason of the invention's failure was the 
expensiveness of the Major's fittings, which make the hive 
appear more like some astronomical instrument, than a box 
for bees. Be this as it may, there was no such thing as a 
frame hive in use in England till 1860." 

It would seem strange, that after going so far Major Munn 
should have failed to give bee-keepers a hive of value. Yet 
with his view that smoke injured the bees and brood (2d edi- 
tion, p. 21), we can readily see, that with his hive and black 
bees, a man would need the skin of a rhinoceros, and nerves 
of brass, to do much by way of actual manipulation for prac- 
tical purposes. It has been truly said that " The Huber hive 
can be used with far greater ease and safety, by a novice, than 
can Munn's." 

It will be seen by reference to " Bee Culture with Movable 
Frames," published by Pastor George Kleine, Hanover, Ger- 
many, in 1853, p. 5, that a druggist by the name of Schmidt, 
in a work which he published in Freiburg, in 1851, entitled, 
"The New Bee Homes," describes a hive with the Huber 
leaves having prolonged tops which hung on rabbets, much as 
do our frames. These Huber leaves were close-fitting, and 
so not practical. Kleine regarded this as inferior to the 
Huber hive, in that the combs must be taken out from above. 
With a side opening he thinks it would be a material improve- 



282 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

ment. It is evident from Kleine's work, that he knew nothing 
either of Munn or his hive. 

In 1847, Jacob Shaw, Jr., then of Hinckley, Ohio, pub- 
lished in the Scientific American, March 5th, 1847, p. 187, 
the description of a hive devised by him. A person who has 
seen the hive tells me that as described and first used, this 
hive had close-fitting frames, which rested in a double-walled 
tin box. By turning hot water into the chamber, the frames 
would be loosened. We do not wonder that, as Mr. Shaw 
deposed, he only made one hive, and that he could only per- 
suade one colony of the several which he tried, to accept the 
situation, and that this one soon perished. He got no surplus, 
and wisely set the 'hive aside. 

In 1847, the well known agricultural writer, Solon Robin- 
son, suggested in an article published in the Albany Cultiva- 
tor, a tin hive made up of unicomb apartments which should 
set close side by side, and be connected by inter-communica- 
ting holes. Of course, such a hive would only succeed in the 
imagination. 

M. Debeauvoys published, in 1847, the 2d edition of 
" Guide de l'Apiculteur," at Angers, France, in which he 
described a movable comb hive, to meet the practical wants 
of French bee-keepers. This hive was not only no improve- 
ment on that of Huber, but even less easy of manipulation. 
The top-bar and uprights of the frames were close-fitting to 
the top and sides of the hive. Says M. Hamet, editor of the 
French bee paper, in his work, "Cours Pratique D' Apicul- 
ture," 1859 edition: "The removal of the frames is more 
difficult than from the Huber hive, and it has never been 
accepted by the practical bee-keepers of France." Mr. Chas. 
Dadant describes this hive, which he once made and used, in the 
American Bee Journal, vol. 7, p. 197. He says of it : " The 
hive worked well when new and empty ; but after the bees 
had glued the frames, it was difficult to remove them without 
breaking the combs. It would have been entirely impos- 
sible to remove them at all, without separating the ends 
of the hive from the frames with a chisel. This hive, which 
had gained 2,500 proselytes in France, was very soon aban- 
doned by all, and the disciples of Debeauvoys returned to 
the old-fashioned straw hive." He adds, further, that these 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 283 

hives were disastrous to French bee culture. Once misled by 
movable frames, they ever afterwards refused them even for 
trial. Of course Mr. S. S. Fisher, once commissioner of 
patents, and an expert, could see nothing in this hive, or any 
of the inventor's modifications of it, to invalidate the Lang- 
stroth patent. How grateful all American apiarists should 
be, that Mr. Langstroth' s invention was of a different type. 

As already stated, bars were used centuries ago in Greece. 
Delia Rocca, in a work published in 1790, also describes bars 
as used by him. Schirach used slats across the top of a box 
with rear-opening doors, as early as 1771. In Key's work, 
^Ancient Bee Master's Farewell," London, 1796, p. 42, such 
hives are described, and beautifully illustrated, plate 1, figs. 
2 and 3. Bevan, London, 1838, describes on p. 82 a similar 
hive, with the bars set in rabbets, which is figured on p. 83. 

In 1835, Dzierzon, who has been to Germany what Lang- 
stroth has to America, commenced bee-culture. Three years 
later he adopted the bar hive, and although these bar hives 
were previously of little value to practical apiculture, in his 
hands they became a most valuable instrument. To remove 
the combs, the great German master had to cut them loose 
from the sides of the hives. Yet from his great skill in 
handling them, his studious habits, and invaluable researches, 
which gave to the world the knowledge of parthenogenesis 
among bees, his hive and system marked a new era in Grerman 
apiculture. 

In 1851, our own Langstroth, without any knowledge of 
what foreign apiarian inventors had done, save what he could 
find in Huber, and edition 1838 of Bevan, invented the hive 
now in common use among the advanced apiarists of America. 
It is this hive, the greatest apiarian invention ever made, 
that has placed American apiculture in advance of that of 
all other countries. What practical bee-keeper of America 
could say with H. Hamet, edition 1861, p. 166, that the im- 
proved hives were without value except to the amateur, and 
inferior for practical purposes ? Our apiarists not native to 
our shores, like the late Adam Grrimm and Mr. Chas. Dadant, 
always conceded that Mr. Langstroth was the inventor of this 
hive, and always proclaimed its usefulness. Well did the 
late Mr. S. Wagner, the honest, fearless, scholarly and truth- 



284 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

loving editor of the early volumes of the American Bee Jour- 
nal, himself of German origin, say : " When Mr. Langstroth 
took up this subject, he well knew what Huber had done, and 
saw wherein he had failed — failing, possibly, only because he 
aimed at nothing more than constructing an observing hive, 
suitable for his purposes. Mr. Langstroth's object was other 
and higher. He aimed at making frames movable, inter- 
changeable, and 'practically serviceable in bee culture." And 
how true what follows : " Nobody before Mr. Langstroth ever 
succeeded in devising a mode of making and using a movable 
frame that was of any practical value in bee culture." No 
man in the world, beside Mr. Langstroth, was so conversant 
with this whole subject as was Mr. Wagner. His extensive- 
library and thorough knowledge made him a competent judge. 
Now that the invention is public property, men will cease to 
falsify and even perjure themselves, to rob an old man, whose 
words, writings, and whole life, shine with untarnished 
ingenuousness. And very soon all will unite with the great 
majority of intelligent American apiarists of to-day, in ren- 
dering to this benefactor of our art, the credit ; though he 
has been hopelessly deprived of the pecuniary benefits of his 
great invention. 

Mr. Langstroth, though he knew of no previous invention 
of frames contained in a case, when he made his invention, 
in 1851, does not profess to have been the first to have 
invented them. Every page of his book shows his transparent 
honesty, and desire to give all due credit to other writers and 
inventors. He does claim, and very justly, to have invented 
the first practical frame hive, the one described in his patent, 
applied for in January, 1851, and in all three editions of his 
book. 

While the name of the late Baron Von Berlepsch will 
always stand in the front rank of apiarists, he never gave the 
world any description of a movable frame hive, until Mr. 
Langstroth had applied for a patent, and not until the Lang- 
stroth hive was largely in use. 

It has been claimed that Mr. Andrew Harbison invented 
and used in his father's apiary, previous to 1851, the Lang- 
stroth hive. In the Dollar Newspaper for January 21, 1857, 
a brother, Mr. W. C. Harbison, who also lived with his father 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 285 

at the time the invention is said to have been made, says : 
u I will venture the prediction that both Quinby's hive and 
mine will ere long be cast aside, to give place to a hive con- 
structed in such a manner that the apiarian can have access- 
to every part of the hive at pleasure, without injury to the 
colony. In this particular both Mr. Quinby and myself have 
signally failed. The invention of such a hive was reserved 
for Mr. Langstroth." It is significant that J. S. Harbison, 
another brother, who was also with his father at the time, in 
his " Bee Culture," San Francisco, 1861, speaks of the Lang- 
stroth hive, p. 149, but not of that of his brother. It has 
also been claimed that W. A. Flanders, Martin Metcalf 
and Edward Townley, each invented this hive prior to Mr. 
Langstroth's invention. Yet, each of these gentlemen wrote 
a book, in which no mention is made of such an invention. Well 
might Mr. Langstroth say, "I can well understand what Job 
meant when he said, ' ! that my enemy had written a book.' " 
It is also stated that Mr. A. F. Moon was a prior inventor of 
this hive. Mr. Moon's own testimony, that he not only 
abandoned his invention, being unable to secure straight 
combs, but even forgot all about it, till it was discovered in 
an old rubbish pile, shows that he did nothing that would, in 
court, overthrow Mr. Langstroth's claims, or that in the least 
•conferred any benefit upon bee-keepers. Mr. Maxwell, of 
Mansfield, Ohio, was another who is said to have anticipated 
Mi-. Langstroth. Yet Mr. Maxwell's own son swears that he 
helped his father make all his hives, and that his father never 
used a movable frame till after 1851. Solon Robinson thought 
his brother, Dr. Robinson, of Jamaica Plains, near Boston, 
made and used movable frame hives prior to 1852. The wife 
of Dr. Robinson testified that her husband bought a right to 
use the Langstroth hive, and with it made his first movable 
frames. 

Every claim, both at home and abroad, to the invention of 
a practical movable frame hive, prior to that of Mr. Lang- 
stroth, when examined, is found to have no substantial foun- 
dation. All previous hives were plainly inferior to the 
improved Huber hive as described in Bevan, p. 106. It is a 
sad blot upon American apiculture, that he who raised it to 
■the proud height which it occupies to-day, should have been 



286 MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

shamefully defrauded of the just reward for his great inven- 
tion. But it gives me the greatest pleasure to state, that by 
no possible word could I gather that Mr. Langstroth feels any 
.bitterness towards those who seem wilfully to have stolen his 
invention, while with a mantle of charity, great as is his noble 
heart, he covers the thousands who either thought he had no 
valid claim, or else that the purchase of a right from others, 
entitled them to his invention. As an inventor and writer on 
apiculture, Mr. Langstroth will ever be held in grateful 
memory. How earnestly will American apiarists desire that 
he may be spared to us until he completes his autobiography, 
that we may learn how he arrived at his great discovery, and 
may study the methods by which he gleaned so many rich and 
valuable truths. 



LECANIUM TULIPIFER^]— Cook. 

In the summer of 1870, this louse, which, so far as I 
know, has never yet been described, and for which I propose 
the above very appropriate name, tulipiferse — the Lecanium of 
the tulip tree — was very common on the tulip trees about the 
College lawns. So destructive were they that some of the 
trees were killed outright, others were much injured, and had 
not the lice for some unknown reason ceased to thrive, wo 
should soon have missed from our grounds one of our most 
attractive trees. 

Since the date above given, I have received these insects, 
through the several editors of our excellent bee papers, from 
many of the States, especially those bordering the Ohio 
River. In Tennessee they seem very common, as they are 
often noticed in abundance on the fine stately tulip trees of 
that goodly State — in the South this tulip tree is called the 
poplar, which is very incorrect, as it is in no way related to 
the latter. The poplar belongs to the willow family ; the 
tulip to the magnolia, which families are wide apart. In 
Pennsylvania the louse has been noticed on the cucumber 
tree — Magnolia acuminata. 

Wherever the tulip-tree lice have been observed sucking 
the sap and vitality from the trees, there the bees have also> 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 287 

been seen, lapping up a sweet juicy exudation, which is 
secreted by the lice. In 1870 I observed that our tulip 
trees were alive with bees and wasps, even as late as August, 
though the trees are in blossom only in June. Examination 
showed that the exuding sweets from these lice were what 
attracted the bees. This was observed with some anxiety, as 
the secretion gives off a very nauseating odor. 

The oozing secretions from this and other lice, not only of 
the bark-louse family (Coccidae), but of the plant-louse family 
(Aphidae), are often referred to as honey-dew. Would it not 
be better to speak of these as insect secretions, and reserve 
the name honey-dew for sweet secretions from plants, other 
than those which come from the flowers ? 

NATURAL HISTORY OP THE LECANIUM TULIPIFERiE. 

The fully developed insect, like all bark lice, is in the form 
of a scale (Fig. 113, 1), closely applied to the limb or twig 
on which it works. This insect, like most of its genus, is 
brown, very convex above, (Fig. 113, 1), and concave beneath, 
(Fig. 113, 2). On the under side is a cotton-like secretion, 
which serves to enfold the eggs. Underneath the species in 
question are two transverse parallel lines of this white down, 
(Fig. 113, 2). One of them, probably the anterior, is nearly 
marginal, and is interrupted in the middle ; while the other 
is nearly central, and in place of the interruption at the 
middle, it has a V-shaped projection back or away from the 
other line. The form of the scale is quadrangular, and 
not unlike that of a turtle, (Fig. 113, 1). When fully 
developed it is a little more than 3-16 of an inch long, and a 
little more than •§- as wide. 

Here at Lansing, the small, yellow, oval eggs appear late 
in August. In Tennessee they would be found under the 
scales in their cotton wrappings many days earlier. The eggs 
are 1-40 of an inch long, and 1-65 of an inch wide These 
eggs, which are very numerous, hatch in the locality of their 
development, and the young or larval lice, quite in contrast 
with their dried, inert, motionless parents, are spry and 
active. They are oval, (Figs. 113, 3 and 4), yellow; and 
1-23 of an inch long, and 1-40 of an inch wide. The eyes, 
antennae (Fig. 113, 5), and legs, (Fig. 113, 6), are plainly 



288 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



visible when magnified 30 or 40 diameters. The 9-jointed 
abdomen is deeply emarginate, or cut into posteriorly, (Fig. 
113, 3), and on each side of this slit is a projecting stylet or 
hair, (Figs. 113, 3 and 4), while from between the eyes, on 
the under side of the head, extends the long recurved beak, 
(Fig. 113, 4). The larvae soon leave the scales, crawl about 
the tree, and finally fasten by inserting their long slender 
beaks, when they so pump up the sap that they grow with 
surprising rapidity. In a few weeks their legs and antennae 
seem to disappear as they become relatively so small, and 





the scale-like form is assumed. In the following summer the 
scale is full-formed and the eggs are developed. Soon the 
scale, which is but the carcass of the once active louse, drops 
from the tree, and the work of destruction is left to the 
young lice, a responsibility which they seem quite ready to 
assume. 

In my observations I have detected no males. Judging 
from others of the bark-lice, these must possess wings, and 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



289 



"will never assume the scale form, though Prof. P. K. Uhler 
writes me that the males of some bark lice are apterous. 

REMEDIES. 

If valued shade or honey trees are attacked by these 
insatiate destroyers, they could probably be saved by discreet 
pruning — cutting off the affected branches before serious 
injury was done, or by syringing the trees with a solution of 
whale oil, soap — or even common soft soap would do — just as 
the young lice are leaving the scales. It would be still 
better to have the solution hot. Whitman's Fountain Pump 
is admirable for making such applications. 

Fig. 1 is slightly magnified ; the others are largely magnified. 



MOTHERWORT AS A HONEY PLANT. 

(Leonurus cardiaca L.) 
Perhaps none of our common herbs promises better, as a 



honey plant, than the one in question. 
Fig. 114. 



It is a very hardy 




perennial, and once introduced in waste places, it is sure to 
hold its own, until it becomes desirable to extirpate it, when. 



290 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



at man's bidding, it quickly lets go its hold, so that it is not 
a dangerous plant to introduce. The blossoms appear at this 
place about June 25th, and persist for a full month, and 
during the entire time are crowded with bees, whatever may- 
be the character of the weather, whether wet or dry, warm or 
cool, whether the plant is in the midst of honey plants or 
isolated. We are thus assured that the plant is constantly 
secreting nectar, and is also a favorite with bees. Rape, 
mustards and borage seem indifferent to the weather, but are 
not favorites with the bees. Motherwort, then, has three 
admirable qualities : It is long in bloom, the flowers afford 
fine honey at all times, and it is a favorite with the bees. 

Fig. 115. 




If it could be made to bloom about three weeks later, coming 
in just after bass-wood, it would haye nearly all the desired 
qualities. I think that we might bring this about by mowing 
the plants in May. I am led to this opinion from the fact 
that some plants which we set back by transplanting in May, 
are still in bloom this August 10th, and are now alive with 
bees, dividing their attention with the beautiful cleome, which 
is now in full bloom, and fairly noisy with bees- 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



291 



DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 

The stalk is square (Fig. 114), branching, and when culti- 
vated, attains a height of some four feet ; though, as it grows in 
waste places, it is seldom more than three feet. The branches, 
and also the leaves, are opposite (Figs. 114 and 115), and in 
the axiles of the latter are whorls of blossoms (Figs. 115 
and 116), which succeed each other from below to the top of 
the branching stems. The corolla is like that of all the 
mints, while the calyx has five teeth, which are sharp and 

Fig. 116. 




spine-like in the nutlets as they appear at the base of the 
leaves (Fig. 115). As they near the top, the whorls of blos- 
soms and succeeding seeds are successively nearer together, 
and finally become very crowded at the apex (Fig. 116). The 
leaves are long and palmately lobed (Fig. 115). The small 
blossom is purple. 



292 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 

THE SOUR-WOOD TREE. 



The sorrel tree (Oxydendrum arboreum) (Fig. 117), so 
called because of the acidity of the leaves, is a native of 
the South, but has been grown even as fa v north as New York,, 
Fig. 117. 




It often attains no mean dimensions in its native home along 
the Alleghanies, often reaching upward more than fifty feet, 
and acquiring a diameter of twelve or fifteen inches. 

The flowers are arranged in racemes, are more drooping 
than represented in the figure, are white, and with the beau- 
tiful foliage make an ornamental tree of high rank. The 
bark is rough, and the wood so soft as to be worthless, either 
as fuel or for use in the arts. As a honey tree, it is very 
highly esteemed ; in fact, it is the linden of the South. 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 293 

THE JAPAN MEDLAR. 

I have received from J. M. Putnam, of New Orleans, La., 
flowers of the Mespilus Japonica, or Japan plum. He states 
that it bears a most delicious fruit, blooms from August till 
January, unless cut off by a severe frost, and is proof against 
ordinary frosts. He states that it furnishes abundance of 
delicious honey, and that, too, when his bees were gathering 
from no other source. 

The Mespilus Germanica grows in England, and is much 
praised for its fruit. From Mr. Putnam's account, the Ml 
Japonica is unprecedented in its length of bloom. We thins 
two months a long time. We pay high tribute to mignonette, 
cleome and borage, when we tell of four months of bloom ; 
but this is mild praise when compared with this Japan plum, 
which flowers from August first till January. 

The flowers are in a dense panicle, and were still fragrant 
after their long journey. The leaf is lanceolate, and very 
thick, some like the wax plant. I should say it was an ever- 
green. The apiarists of the South are to be congratulated 
on this valuable acquisition to their bee forage. I hope it 
will thrive North as well as South. 



THE STINGING -BUG.— Phymata Erosa, FabS. 

This insect is very widely distributed throughout the Uni- 
ted States. I have received it from Maryland to Missouri on 
the South, and from Michigan to Minnesota on the North. 
The insect will lie concealed among the flowers, and upon 
occasion will grasp a bee, hold it off at arm's length, and suck 
out its blood and life. 

This is a Hemipteran, or true bug, and belongs to the 
family Phymatidce, UJir. It is the Phymata Urosa, Fabr., 
the specific name erosa referring to its jagged appearance. 
It is also called the "stinging bug," in reference to its habit 
of repelling intrusion by a painful thrust with its sharp, 
strong beak. 



294 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



The "stinging bug" (Fig. 118) is somewhat jagged in 
appearance, about three-eighths of an inch long, and generally 
of a yellow color ; though this latter seems quite variable. 

Fig. 118. — Side view, natural size. 




Frequentty there is a distinct greenish hue. Beneath the 
abdomen, and on the back of the head, thorax and abdomen, 
it is more or less specked with brown ; while across the dorsal 

Fig. 119. — Magnified twice. 




aspect of the broadened abdomen is a marked stripe of 
brown (Fig. 119 d, d). Sometimes this stripe is almost want- 
ing, sometimes a mere patch, while rarely the whole abdomen, 

Fig. 120. — Beak, much magnified. 




is very slightly marked, and as often we find it almost wholly 
brown above and below. The legs (Fig. 119, 6), beak and 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 295 

antennae (Fig. 119, a) are greenish yellow. The beak (Fig. 
120) has three joints (Fig. 120, a, b, c) and a sharp point (Fig. 
120, d). This beak is not only the great weapon of offense, 
but also the Organ through which the food is sucked. By the 

Fig. 121. — Antenna, much magnified. 




use of this, the insect has gained the soubriquet of stinging 
bug. This compact jointed beak is peculiar to all true bugs, 
and by observing it alone, we are able to distinguish all the 

Fig. 122. — Anterior Leg, magnified — exterior vieiv. 
0- 




very varied forms of this group. The antenna (Fig. 121) is 
four-jointed. The first joint (Fig. 121, a) is short, the second 
and third (Fig. 121, b and c)are long and slim, while the ter- 

Fig. 123. — Interior vieio. 




minal one (Fig. 121, d) is much enlarged. This enlarged 
joint is one of the characteristics of the genus Phymata, as 
described by Latreille. But the most curious structural 
peculiarity of this insect, and the chief character of the 



296 



MANUAL 01 THS APIARY. 



genus Phymata, is the enlarged anterior legs (Figs. 122, 123 
and 124). These, were they only to aid in locomotion, would 
seem like awkward, clumsy organs, but when we learn that they 
are used to grasp and hold their prey, then we can but 
appreciate and admire their modified form. The femur (Fig. 
122, b) and the tarsus (Fig. 122, a) are toothed, while the 

Fig. 124.— Claw, extended. 
b 




latter is greatly enlarged. From the interior lower aspect of 
the femur (Fig. 123) is the small tibia, while on the lower 
edge of the tarsus (Fig. 123, d) is a cavity in which rests the 
single claw. The other four legs (Fig. 125) are much as usual. 
This insect, as already intimated, is very predaceous, lying 
in wait, often almost concealed, among flowers, ready to <sap- 

Fig. 125. — Middle Leg, much magnified. 




ture and destroy unwary plant-lice, caterpillars, beetles, but- 
terflies, moths, and even bees and wasps. We have already 
noticed how well prepared it is for this work by its jaw-like 
anterior legs, and its sharp, strong, sword-like beak. 

It is often caught on the golden rod. This plant, from its 
very color, tends to conceal the bug, and from the very char- 
acter of the plant — being attractive as a honey plant to bees- 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 297 

— the slow bug is enabled to catch the spry and active honey- 
bee. 

As Prof. Uhler well says of the "stinging-bug": " It is 
very useful in destroying caterpillars and other vegetable- 
feeding insects, but is not very discriminating in its tastes, 
and would as soon seize the useful honey-bee as the pernicious 
saw-fly." And he might have added that it is equally indif- 
ferent to the virtues of our friendly insects like the parasitic 
and predaceous species. 

We note, then, that this bug is not wholly evil, and as its 
destruction would be well-nigh impossible, for it is as widely 
scattered as are the flowers in which it lurks, we may well rest 
its case, at least until its destructiveness becomes more 
serious than at present. 



THE SOUTHERN BEE-KILLERS. 

Mallophora orcina and Mallopliora bomboides. 

I have received from several of our enterprising bee-keepers 
of the South — Tennessee, Georgia and Florida — the above 
insects, with the information that they dart forth from some 



Fig. 127. 




convenient perch, and with swift and sure aim, grasp a bee, 
bear it to some bush, when they leisurely suck out all but the 
mere crust, and cast away the remains. The bee which is 



298 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



thus victimized, is readily known by the small hole in the 
back, through which the juices were pumped out. 

The insects plainly belong to the family Asilidae, the same 
that includes the Missouri bee-killer, Asilus Missouriensis, the 
Nebraska bee-killer, Promachus bastardi, and other predatory 
insects, several of which, I regret to say, have the same evil 
habit of killing and devouring our friends of the hive. 

The characters of this family, as given by Loew, one of the 
greatest authorities on Diptera, or two-winged flies, are pro- 
longed basal cells of the wings, third longitudinal vein 
bifurcate, third joint of antenna simple, under lip forming a 
horny sheath, empodium, a projection below and beneath the 
claws (Fig. 131, c), a horny bristle. 



Fig. 128. 



Fig. 131. 





The insects in question belong to Loew's third group, 
Asilina, as the antennae end in a bristle (Fig. 128), while the 
second longitudinal vein of the wing (Fig. 129, b) runs into 
the first (Fig. 129, a). 

The genus is Mallophora. The venation of the wings much 
resembles that of the genus Promachus, the same that con- 
tains the Nebraska bee-killer, though the form of these insects 
is very different. The Nebraska bee-killer is long and slim 
like the Asilus- Missouriensis (see Fig. 108), while the one in 
question is much like the neuter bumble-bee in form. 

In Mallophora and Promachus, the venation is as repre- 
sented in Fig. 129, where, as will be seen, the second vein 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 299 

(Fig. 129, b) forks, while in the genus Asilus (Fig. 130) the 
the third vein is forked, though in all three genera the third 
joint of the antennae (Fig. 128) ends in a prolonged bristle. 

One of the most common of these pests, which I am 
informed by Dr. Hagen, is Mallopliora orcina, Weid, (Fig. 
126) is one inch long, and expands one and three-fourths 
inches (Fig. 127). The head (Fig. 128) is broad, the eyes 
black and prominent, the antennas three-jointed, the last joint 
terminating in a bristle, while the beak is very large, strong, 
and like the eyes and antennae, coal black. This is mostly 
concealed by the light yellow hairs, which are crowded thick 
about the mouth and between the eyes. 

The thorax is prominent and thickly set with light yellow 
hairs. The abdomen is narrow, tapering, and covered with 

Fig. 129. 




yellow hairs except the tip, which is black. Beneath, the 
insect is clear black, though there are scattering hairs of 
a grayish yellow color on the black legs. The pulvilli, or feet 
pads (Fig. 131, b) are two in number, bright yellow in color, 
surmounted by strong black claws (Fig. 131, a), while below 
and between is the sharp spine (Fig, 131, c), technically known 
as the empodium. 

I cannot give the distinctions which mark the sexes, nor 
can I throw any light upon the larval condition of the insect. 

The habits of the flies are interesting, if not to our liking. 
Their flight is like the wind, .and perched near the hive, they 
rush upon the unwary bee returning to the hive with its full 
load of nectar, and grasping it with their hard strong legs, 



300 • MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 

they bear it to some perch near by, when they pierce the 
crust, suck out the juices, and drop the carcass, and are then 
ready to repeat the operation. A hole in the bee shows the 
cause of its sudden taking off. The eviscerated bee is not 
always killed at once by this rude onslaught, but often can 
crawl some distance away from where it falls, before it expires. 

Another insect nearly as common is the Mallophora bom- 
boides, Wied. This fly might be called a larger edition of the 
one just described, as in form, habits and appearance, it closely 
resembles the other. It belongs to the same genus, possess- 
ing all the generic characters already pointed out. It is very 
difficult to capture them, as they are so quick and active. 

This fly is one and five-sixteenths inches long, and expands 
two and a half inches. The head and thorax are much as in 

Fig. 130. 



the other species. The wings are very long and strong, and, 
as in the other species, are of a smoky brown color. The 
abdomen is short, pointed, concave from side to side on the 
under surface,while the grayish yellow hairs are abundant on 
the legs and whole under portion of the body. The color is 
a lighter yellow than in the other species. These insects are 
powerfully built, and if they become numerous, must prove a 
formidable enemy to the bees. 

Another insect very common and destructive in Georgia, 
though it closely resembles the two just describod, is of a 
different genus. It is the Laphria thoracica of Fabricius. 
In this genus the third vein is forked, and the third joint of 
the antenna is without the bristle, though it is elongated and 
tapering. The insect is black, with yellow hair covering the 
upper surface of the thorax. The abdomen is wholly black 
both above and below, though the legs have yellow hairs on 
the femurs and tibia. This insect belongs to the same family 
as the others, and has the same' habits. It is found North as 
well as South. 



MANUAL OP THE APIARY. 301 

HONEY-COMB CORAL. 

A very common fossil found in many parts of the Eastern 
and Northern United States, is, from its appearance, often 
called petrified honey-comb. We have many such specimens 
in our museum. In some cases the cells are hardly larger 
than a pin-head ; in others a quarter of an inch in diameter. 

These (Fig. 132) are not fossil honey-comb as many are led 
to believe, though the resemblance is so striking that no 
wonder that the public generally are deceived. These speci- 
mens are fossil coral, which the paleontologist places in the 
genus Favosites ; favosus being a common species in our State. 
They are very abundant in the lime rock in northern Michi- 

FiG. 132. 




gan, and are very properly denominated honey-stone coral. 
The animals of which these were once the skeletons, so to 
speak, are not insects at all, though often called so by men 
of considerable information. It would be no greater blunder 
to call an oyster or a clam an insect. 

The species of the genus Favosites first appeared in the 
Upper Silurian rocks, culminated in the Devonian, and disap- 
peared in the early Carboniferous. No insects appeared till 
the Devonian age, and no Hymenoptera — bees, wasps, etc. — 
till after the Carboniferous. So the old-time Favosites reared 



302 



MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



its limestone columns and helped to build islands and conti- 
nents untold ages — millions upon millions of years — before 
any flower bloomed, or any bee sipped the precious nectar. 
In some specimens of this honey-stone coral (Fig. 133), there 



Fig. 133. 
















are to be seen banks of cells, much resembling the paper cells 
of some of our wasps. This might be called wasp-stone 
coral, except that both styles were wrought by the self-same 
animals. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



PAGE 

A B C of Bee Culture . 22 

Abdomen of Insects 48 

Air Tubes 28 

Albino Bees 43 

Alighting-Board 12T 

separate from bottom-board 127 

Alsike Clover— see clover 228 

American Bee Journal 19 

Amateurs 11 

anatomy and physiology 48 

of bees 71 

Of insects 48 

internal 56 

ANTENNAE 51 

ANTS 271 

remedies for . . 271 

function 5] 

APIARY, 

where to locate 120 

grounds 152 

house— see house apiary 255 

position of 152 

Apiary Grounds 152 

arrangement of 152 

improvement of 153 

screens for 152 

shade for 153 

Apiculture, 

adaptation to women 15 

as an avocation 15 

fascination of 12 

for amateurs 11, 15 

for specialists 11 

inducements to 12 

adaptation to women 15 

excellence for amateurs 15 

improves the mind 17 

recreation 12 

yields delicious food 17 

profits of 13 

requisites to 18 

conventions 19 

enthusiasm 24 

experience 18 

mental effort 18 

persistence 24 

prompt attention 23 

publications 19 

study and thought 18 

visits to other apiarists 18 

work 11 

unsuited to whom 12 

APID.B FAMILY 34 

animals of 35 

instincts of 34 

Apis Genus 38 

animals of 40 

characters of 38 



Apis Mellifica 41 

Aristotle 44 

Articulate Branch 27 

animals of 27 

Artificial Colonies 177 

advantages of 177 

how made 177 

one from one 177 

one from several 178 

Axioms 877 

Barberry 225 

figure 226 

Barnes' Saw 151 

Basswood 237 

figure of 237 

Bees, 

as fertilizers 220 

burying 254 

how to procure 118 

injaring fruit 220 

kind to purchase 119 

kinds in each colon y 71 

place in the animal kingdom 27 

quieted 197 

by jarring 198 

by smoking 198 

value of- 120 

when to purchase 119 

who may keep 11 

why keep 12 

Bee-Bread— see pollen Ill 

Bee Dress for Ladies 197 

bee enemies 262 

ants 271 

bee-hawk 269 

bee-killer 267 

bee-louse 268 

bee-moth 262 

king-bird 272 

mice 272 

spiders 271 

t a eh ina fly 270 

toads 272 

wasps 271 

Bee Gloves 197 

Bee Glue— see propolis 112 

Bee Hawk 269 

remedy for 270 

Bee-Keepers' Axioms 277 

Bee-keepers' Magazine 21 

Bee-Killer 267 

figure of 268 

remedies for 267 

BEE-L.OUSE 268 

figure of 268 

remedy for 269 



INDEX. 



Page 

Bee-Moth 262 

cocoons of 264 

figure of 264 

eggs of 263 

figure of 264, 265 

larva of 263 

figure Of 264 

remedies 266 

silk tube of 263 

figure of 262, 263 

Bee Plants— see plants 220 

necessary to success 218 

list of 221 

Bee Veil 196 

figure of 196 

Bees Angered 195, 201 

by quick movements 195, 201 

by sweat 201 

Bees Sobdued 197 

Beeswax 106 

from what 106 

how separated 211 

Beggar-Ticks 244 

Bergamot 238 

Bevan on the Honey-Bee 22 

Bevel-Gauge 126 

figure of 126 

BevelJoints 126 

Bibliography 44, 113 

Bingham Hive 140 

figure of 140 

Bingham Smoker 199 

figure of 199 

Black Bees— see German bees 41 

Blackberries 23G 

Blood of Insects 57 

Body of Insects 48 

parts of 48 

Bombus 35 

Boneset •. 288 

figureof 241 

Bonnet 45 

Books for the apiarist 21 

A B C of Bee Culture 22 

Bevan's Honey-Bee 22, 113 

foreign 22 

Gray's Botany 244 

Huber 113 

Hunter's Manual 23 

King's Text-Book 52 

Dangstroth on the Honey-Bee. . . 21 

Neighbour's Apiary 23, 118 

Quinby's Mysteries 22 

Books for the Entomologist. .47, 113 
Duncan's Transformations of In- 
sects 113 

Kirby & Spence 47 

Packard 47, 113 

Westwood 47 

Reports 47 

Pitch 47 

Harris 47 

Riley 47 

Borage 231 

figure of 230 

Bottom-board 127 

figure of 128 

immovable 129 

Box Hives * 122 

Boxes 142 

Barker & Dicer 143 

crate for 144 

figure Of 142, 143 

Harbison 142 



Page. 

Boxes— continued. 

figure of 143 

Isham 142 

figureof 143 

position of 144 

Russell 142 

special support for 142 

use 142 

Box Honey 142 

when to secure 215 

where to keep 216 

Branch 27 

articulata 27 

of' the honey-bee 27 

Breathing of Insects 59 

Breathing-mouths 59 

Buckwheat 242 

figureof 242 

Button-ball 238 

figure of 240 

Cages 

for introducing queen 184 

for shipping queen 186 

figure of 187 

Calendar 274 

Carpenter Bees 36 

Catnip 232, 240 

Chaff Hives 251 

Chrysalids 69 

Circulatory System 57 

Class 28 

insecta 28 

of the honey-bee 28 

Cleome— see Rocky M't'n bee plant. 238 

Clover 228 

Alsike 228 

figureof 229 

sweet 228 

figure of 230 

white 228 

figureof 228 

Clustering Outside the Hive 153 

cause of 153 

how prevented 153 

adding room 176 

extracting 188 

shading 153 

Cocoons 69 

of bees 98 

College Course 118 

Colonies, 

always strong 119 

how moved 187 

Columella 44 

Comb 108 

cells In 110 

worker 110 

drone 110 

figure of 109 

for guide 208 

howTastened 157, 158 

how made 108, 110 

transparency of 110 

use of HO 

what determines kind 110 

Comb Foundation 203 

American 204 

figureof 203 

history of 203 

how cut 207 

how fastened 209 

how made 206 

use of 207 



Comb Foundation Machine 

figure of 

inventor of 

Comb Honey 

apparatus to secure 

care of 

in boxes 

in frames 

in what form 144 

marketing 

when to secure 

CON VENTIONS 

CORN 

Cotton 

figure of 

Cover for Frames 

Cover for Hives 

figure of 130 

Crates, 

section 

market 

Cyprian Bee 



a<;e 
205 
205 
205 
21;') 
141 
216 
142 
144 
215 
215 
215 
19 
235 
236 
2S6 
136 
l:.".i 
131 

149 
216 
43 



Pe Geer 

Digestive Organs 

Diseases 

dysentery 247, 

foul brood 

Dissection 50, 

Dissecting Instruments 51, 

lenses 51, 

needle points 

dividers -see separators 

Dividing Colonies— see artificial 

colonies 171, 

Divtsion-board 

figure of 

use of 

Doll a r Queens 

Dorsata Bee 

Dress for Ladies 

Drones 

development 0- 

eggs of 

eyes of 

function of 

influence of, on drone progeny. . . 

jaws of 

figure of 

leg of 

figure of 

longevity of 

number of 

tongue of 

when in hive 86, 

why so numerous 

Dysentery 247, 



Egg 67 

of insects 67 

of bee 96 

Egyptian Bee 4:i 

Empty cells 188 

importance of 188 

how to secure 188 

Entrance to Hive 12S 

Epicranium 48 

Extractor, 

of honey 188 

figure of 189 

history of 188 



m Page. 

Extractor— continued. 

how to use 194 

knives for 191 

figure of \\ 191 

rack for 139 

figure of 190 

use of 191 

when to use 192 

wire comb baskets for 189 

figure of 189 

of wax 212 

figure of 212 

Extracted Honey 214 

market for 214 

Extracting Honey 191 

how done 194 

why done 191 

when done 192 

Eyes of Insects : 53 

compound 54 

simple 54 

Fabricius 46 

Family 34 

apid® 34 

of the honey-bee 34 

Feeder ieo 

figure of 160, 161 

Feeding 159 

amount to feed 159 

use of 159 

what to feed 160 

honey 160 

sugar 160 

flour 163 

Female Organs 64 

Fertile Workers 77 

Fertilization op Flowers by 

Bees 220 

Fig wort 238 

figure of 238 

Fitch's Report 47 

Foot-power Saw 151 

Foul Brood 259 

cause 260 

cure for 260 

symptoms of 2j9 

Foundation 203 

figure of 203 

history of 203 

use of 203, 207 

how cut 207 

how fastened 209 

how made 206 

Frames 132 

arrangement for surplus 147 

block for making 134 

figure of 135 

cover for 136 

figure of 133, 134 

form of 132 

Gallup 133 

gauge for construction 135 

figure of 135 

inventor of 123 

Langstroth 132 

number of 132 

section 148 

small— see sections 144 

space about 136 

space between 136 

Fruit Trees 225 



INDEX 



Page 

Gallup Frame 133 

Geoffroy 45 

Genus, 

apis 38 

of the honey-bee 38 

German or Black Bee 31 

Gleanings in Bee Culture 20 

Gloves 197 

Golden-rod 242 

figure of 243 

Grapes Injured by Bees 220 

Grape Vines for Shade 153 

Gunther 12 

Handling Bees 195 

Harris' Injurious Insects 47 

HARVEY. 44 

HEAD OP INSECTS 48 

organs of 48 

Heart op Insects 57 

Hexapods— see Insects 30 

Hives 122 

alighting-board of 127 

Bingham 140 

figure of 140 

bottom-board of 127 

figure of 128 

box not good 122 

chaff 251 

cover of t 129 

division-boara for 137 

entrance to 128 

figure of 124,130, 155 

frames for 132 

Huber 138 

joints of 126 

square Lib 

Sgure of 125 

bevel 126 

figure of 130 

Langstroth 123 

figure of 124 

lumber for 124 

movable comb 12a 

movable frame 12* 

near the ground 128 

nucleus 1»J 

position of Jjf 

figureof 115 

Quinby..... 1^9 

figureof i°v 

rabbet of 125 

size of J** 

Honey J"* 

collected, not secreted iw 

defined 10* 

extracted lj» 

for food 17 

granulated, how dissolved i»? 

how collected 10? 

how deposited 10j> 

how transported 105 

marketing of 213 

natural use of 10? 

source of log 

bark lice 105, 218 

honey-uew 105, f>9 

plants 105, 210 

plant lice 105, 218 

other sources 105, 219 

HONE Y-COMB— see comb It 8 

Honey Extractor— see extractor.. 188 
figureof 189 



Page. 

Honey Extractor — continued. 

importance of 188 

requisites of 189 

use of 191 

when to use 192 

Honey Knives 191 

figureof 191 

Hone y Plants— see plants 218 

for April 223 

for May 225 

for July 237 

for June 228 

for August 242 

importance of 218 

list of 221 

House Apiary 255 

advantages of 256 

are they desirable? 256 

objections to 257 

Huber 71 

Huber Hive 138 

kinds of 138 

Hunter's manual i 23 

Hymenopterous Insects 31 

the highest 32 

parasitic 32 

IMAGO 70 

INSECTA 28 

animals of 30 

class 28 

INSECTS, Or HEXAPODS 30 

abdomen of 30 

head of 30 

imago of 30 

larva of 30 

pupa of 30 

thorax of 30 

transformations of 66 

transformations, complete 66 

transformations, incomplete 70 

INTRODUCTION OF CELL 185 

figure of 167 

introduction of queen 183 

Intestines 61 

Italian Bees 41, 180 

description of 42, 181 

figure of Frontispiece 

history of 41 

superiority of 181 

JAWS 50 

figure of 92 

Judas Tree 225 

figure of 224 

King Bird 27? 

King's Text-Book 22 

KlRBY & SPENCE'S Entomology.47, 113 

IjABIUM *S 

Labrum 48 

Ladies' Bee Dress 197 

LiANGSTROTH, Rev. L. Ii 123 

LiANGSTROTH FRAME 132 

figure of 124 

LiANGSTROTH HIVE 123 

figure of 124 

liangstroth on the honey-bee 21 

Larva 68 

latreille «» 



INDEX. 



Page 

Leaf-Cutting Bee 36 

Legs of Insects 56 

Linnaeus 45 

LIGULA 49 

figure of 91 

Location of Apiary 120 

Locust Trees 236 

Lyonnet 46 

Male Organs 62 

figure of 63 

Mandibles 50 

figure of 92 

MAPLE 224, 225 

figure of 222 

Market— for honey 213 

crate for 216 

figures of 216, 217 

for comb 215 

for extracted 214 

how to stimulate 213 

rules for 215 

MASON Bees 36, 37 

Maxillae 50 

Megachile 36 

Melipona 35 

Mice 272 

remedy for 272 

Mignonette 231 

figure of 231 

Milk-weed 232 

pollen masses of 233 

figure of 233 

Mimicry 31 

Mouth Parts 48 

figure of 49 

variation of 50 

Movable-Comb Hives 123 

two types 123 

Moving Colonies 187 

Multiplying Colonies 171 

Muscles of Insects 56 

Mustard 233 

figure of 233 

Natural History of the Honey- 
bee 27 
Natural method of Increase.. 171 

Natural Swarms 171 

means to save 173 

implements required 173 

not desirable 171 

second swarms prevented 175 

Neighbour, the Apiary 23 

Nerves of Insects 57 

figure of 58 

Neuters 90 

cocoon of 98 

development of 96 

eggs of 96 

eyes of 92 

figure of 90 

function of 99 

old workers 99 

young workers 99 

honey stomach of 92 

figureof 60 

jaws of 92 

figure of 92 

larva of 97 

figure of 97 

longevity of 99 

number of 90 

pollen baskets of 93 



PAGE. 

Neuters— continued. 

figureof 93 

pupa of 98 

figure of 97 

size of 90 

sting of 95 

figure of 95 

tarsi of 93 

figure of 93, 94 

tibia of 93 

tongue of 92 

figure of 91 

wings of 92 

figure of 38 

Nymphs 69 

Order 30 

of insects' 30 

of the honey-bee 30 

Osmia 37 

Ovaries 64 

figure of 64 

Packard's Entomology 47 

Palpi 49 

Papers 19 

American Bee Journal 19 

Bee-Keepers' Magazine 21 

Gleanings in Bee Culture 20 

Paragloss.iE 49 

Parasitic Insects 32 

Parasitic Bees 37 

Parthenogenesis 80 

in bees 80 

in other insects 81 

Plants 220 

asters 243 

figure of 243 

April 223 

August 242 

barberry 225 

figure of 226 

basswood 237 

figure of 237 

beggar-ticks 244 

bergamot 238 

blackberry 236 

boneset 238 

figure of 241 

buckwheat 242 

figureof 242 

button-ball 238 

figureof 240 

catnip 232, 240 

clover 228 

Alsike 228 

figureof 229 

sweet 228 

figureof 230 

white 228 

figureof 228 

coffee berry 226 

corn 235 

cotton 236 

figureof 236 

flgwort 238 

figureof 238 

fruit trees 225 

golden-rod 242 

figure of 243 

Judas tree 225 

figure of 224 



INDEX. 



Page 
'Pla NTS— continued. 

July 237 

June 228 

Jistof 221 

locust 236 

map I es 224, 225 

figure of ■ 222 

milk-weed 232 

pollen-masses 232 

figure of 233 

mints 232 

figure of 232 

mignonette 231 

figure of 231 

mustard 233 

figure of 233 

okra 232 

figure of • 231 

poplar 225 

rape 234 

figure of. 234 

Rocky Mountain bee 238 

figure of 239 

sage 232 

white 226 

figure of 227 

sour-wood 240 

Spanish needles 244 

St. John's wort 240 

sumac 226 

teasel 235 

figure of 230 

tick-seed 244 

tulip tree 234 

figure of 235 

willow : 224 

figure of 223 

wistaria 225 

American 225 

figure of 225 

Chinese 225 

figure of 226 

Pliny 44 

Poison from Sting 12 

innoculation of 12 

Poison Sack 95 

Pollen Ill 

function of 1 12 

how carried 1 11 

nature of Ill 

source of Ill 

where deposited 112 

Preparation for Apiculture ... 117 

college course 118 

plan 318 

read 117 

visit 117 

Products of Bees 104 

comb 108 

figure of 109 

honey 104 

pollen or bee-bread Ill 

propolis or bee-glue 112 

wax 106 

Products of Insects 104 

Propolis or Bee-Glue 112 

function of 113 

nature of 112 

source of 112 

Publications 19 

American Bee Journal 19 

Bee-Keepers' Magazine 21 

Gleanings in Bee Culture 20 

Pupa 68 

figureof 69 



PAGE. 

Queen 71 

brood from eggs 78, 161 

cages 184 

cell 75 

figure of 109, 167 

introduction of 167 

figureof 167 

when started 164 

where built 164 

figureof 109 

clipping wing of 168 

how done 169 

not injurious 16S 

why done 169 

cocoon of 77 

development of 75 

eggs of 80, 81 

how impregnated 81 

Wagner's theory 81 

fecundity of 83, 84 

figure of 72 

food of larvae 76 

function of 83, 

how procured 185 

importance of 163 

impregnation of 78 

only on the wing 79 

introduction of 183 

laying of 82 

longevity of 83 

must have empty cells 188 

never to be wanting 163, 176 

never to be poor 186 

no sovereign 85 

ovaries of 72 

figure of 64 

oviduct of 64 

piping of 102 

rearing of 78, 163, 186 

sex of 71 

shipping 186 

sizeof 72 

spermatheca of 72 

sterility of 83 

sting of 71 

tongue of 73 

figure of 73 

wings of 73 

Queen Cells 75 

figure of 109, 167 

how secured 164 

introduction of 167 

figure of 167 

Queen Rearing 163, 186 

Queen Shipping 186 

cage for 186 

figure of 187 

Queen white Ant 84 

fecundity of 84 

Quilt 136 

QuiNBY, M 138 

QuinbyHivb 139 

figureof 139 

Quinbv's Mysteries of Bee- 

Keeptng 22 

Quinby Smoker 198 

figureof 199 

RABBETS FOR HIVE 125 

of tin 125 

RACES OF THE HONEY-BEE 41 

Egyptian 43 

German or black 41 

Italian or Ligurian 4i 



INDEX. 



Races of the Hone y-Bee— cont'd. 

history of 41 

characters of 42 

superiority of 181 

other 43 

RAY 44 

REAUMUR 45 

Respiration 59 

Riley's Reports 47 

robbing 268 

how checked 258 

how prevented 259 

when to fear 258 

Rocky Mountain Bee Plant 238 

figure of 239 

Royal Jelly K 

Russell Hive 141 

Salicylic Acid 261 

use of 261 

Sage 232 

white .226 

figure of 227 

Sawdust 154 

Saws 151 

Barnes' 151 

foot-power 151 

Second Swarms 102 

Secretion 62 

Secretory Organs 6) 

Sections 147 

dove-tail 147 

figure of 146 

Hetherington 146 

glassing 146 

Phelps-Wheeler-Betsinger 147 

figure of 147 

veneer 144 

glassing 145 

Section Block 145 

figure of 145 

Section Frame 147 

figure of 148 

where placed 348 

Section Rack 149 

Doolittle 151 

figure of 150, 151 

Southard & Ranney's 150 

use of 149 

Wheeler 151 

Senses of Insects 51 

hearing &1 

seeing 54 

smelling 52 

feeling 51 

Separators 146, 150 

figure of 146 

tin 148 

figure of 149, 150 

wooden 146 

figure of 146 

Shade for Hives 153 

evergreens 154 

grape-vines 153 

houses 153 

use of 153 

prevents idleness 153 

prevents melting of comb 153 

Smokers 198 

bellows 198 

how used 201 

Bingham , 199 

figure of 199 



Smokers -continued. 

Quinby 198 

figure of 199 

Sour-wood 240 

Spanish Needles 244 

Specialists 11 

Species of the Honey-Bee 41 

Spermatheca 65 

Spiders ■. 271 

Spiracles 69 

Spring Dwindling 254 

Starting an apiary 117 

Sting 95 

figure of 95 

Stingless Bees 35 

STINGS 201 

cure of 201 

St. John's Wort 240 

Stomach 60 

sucking 60 

true 60 

Sub-Order 31 

Hymenoptera 31 

of the honey-bee 31 

Sumac 226 

Sun-Flower 243 

swammerd am 44 

Swarming 101, 171 

after-swarms 102 

clustering 102 

drone-brood started 101 

old colony— how known 102 

preparation for 101 

drone- brood 101 

queen cells 101 

prevented 176 

when to expect 176 

Swarms 172 

hiving 173 

easy method 172 

second 172 

bow prevented 172 

Tachina Fly 270 

figure of 270 

Tailor-Bee 36 

Teasel 235 

figure of 236 

Thorax of Insects 48 

appendages of 55 

Tick-Seed 244 

Toads 272 

Tongue ■•- 49 

Trachea 28, 59 

figure of 28 

Transferring 15° 

method of 156 

when easiest loo 

Transformations of Insects 66 

incomplete 70 

Trigona 35 

Tulip Tree 234 

figure of 235 

UN rTiNG 253 

when advisable 253 

"VARIETIES OF THE HONEY-BEE-- 

see races 41 

Veil 196 

figure of 196 : 



INDEX. 



Page. 

"VIRGIL 44 I 



Wagner 19 

Wagner's Theory 81 

Wasps 271 

remedies for 272 

Water tor Bees 98 

Wax 106 

composition of "107 

function of 108 

how secured 211 

importance of 211 

source of 106 

Wax Extractor 212 

figure of 212 

Wax Pockets 100 

figure of 106 

Weiss' Foundation Machine 204 

figure of 205 

Westwood on Insects 47 

Willow 224 

figure of 223 

Wings 55 

clipping 168 

figure of 38 

of drone 86 

of queen 73 

of worker 92 

figure of 38 

Wintering 246 

requisites to safe 248 



Wintering— continued. 

absorbents above bees 253 

chaff hives 261 

chamber contracted 253 

colonies prepared 248 

depositories for 252 

cellar 252 

bouse 252 

house apiary 255 

good food 248 

late breeding 249 

packing-box 250 

figureof • 250 

protected if left out 250 

why disastrous ■ 246 

excessive moisture 248 

extremes of temperature 247 

spring dwindling , 254 

too early cessation of storing. 247 

unwholesome food 247 

Women as Bee-Keepers 15 

Workers— see Neuters 90 

fertile .77, 90 

Wistaria 225 

American 225 

figureof 225 

Chinese 225 

figure of 226 

XYLOCOPA 36 



INDEX TO APPENDIX. 



Bark Louse 286 

of Tulip Tree 286 

Bee Enemies 286, 2C3 

berlepsch 234 

Debeauvoy's Hive 282 

dell a rocca 283 

dzierzon 283 

Dzierzon Hive 283 

Fosstl honey Comb 301 

fiiguresof..... 301,302 

Grecian Hives 278 

Harbison Hive 284 

History op Movable Frames 278 

Hives 278 

Berlepsch 284 

Debeauvoy . . : 282 

Del la Kocoa 283 

Dzierzon 283 

Harbison 284 

Huber 278 

Jjangstroth 283 

Munn 279 

figures of 279,280 

Sehirach 283 

Schmidt 281 

Shaw 282 

Insects 286, 293 

Laphriathoracica 300 

ljecanium tulipif erae 286 

Mallophora bomboides 297 

Mallophora orcina 297 

Phymata erosa 293 



Japan Medlar 293 

Kleine 281 

Langstroth Hive 283 

Laphria thoracica 300 

LiECANIUM TULIPIFERjE 286 

figure of 288 

Mallophora bomboides 297 

orcina 297 

Motherwort 289 

figures of 289, 290, 291 

Munn Hive 279 

figures of 279, 280 

Phymata erosa 293 

figures of 294,295,296 

Plants 289 

Japan medlar 293 

Motherwort 289 

Sourwood 292 

Reaumur 278 

Schmidt's Hive 281 

Schirach's Hive 283 

Shaw's Hive 282 

Sourwood 292 

figureof 292 

Southern Bee-killers 297 

figures of 297, 29S 

Stinging Bug 293 

figuresof 294,295, 296 

Swammerdam 278 

Triangular Hive 280 

figureof 289 



COOK'S NEW MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 



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We recommend the American Bee Journal as the ablest bee 
paper in the United States.— Farmers' Home Journal. 

It is progressive, interesting and valuable to every one who Cj 

keeps bees, and is ably edited.— Agriculturist, Quincy, 111. ^ 

It is full of useful suggestions and instructive articles to every 
one interested in honey producing.— Democrat, Allegan, Mich. 

It is full to overflowing with matters pertaining to the success- 
ful management of the little honey producers— a tnoroughly live 
periodical.— Standard, New Bedford, Mass. 

The Journal surpasses itself ; each issue improves upon the H 



last, in the bright, cheerful appearance and instructive influence 
of its whole composition.— W. Williamson, Lexington, Ky. 

The American Bee Journal is increasing in influence with 
each number. It is a valuable auxiliary to the bee-keeper, and 3H 

should be taken and rend by all interested in bee-culture.— Stand- rj 
ard, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. P3 

I hail the coming of the Bee Journal with joy. It is the |rj 
greatest light we have on bee-culture, bringing ideas, not oniy 
from the editor, but from all the other experienced bee men of 
the land.— L. A. Taber, Holyoke, Mass. [T] 

In its department of journalism, the American Bee Journal W 
stands without a rival. Devoted exclusively to bee-culture and sj* 

the production of pure honey, its columns are filled with such GO 

matter as a keeper of bees can read and profit by. Its table of 
contents is as full as it is interesting.— Gazette, Lewiston, Pa. 

The American Bee Journal ought to be taken by all bee- 
keepers ; it is neatly printed and replete in useful information 
about bees and honey. It fully describes the habits of those busy Jjri 

extractors of sweets from flowers and herbs, whose products, with 
the yield from our cows, makes our land literally flow with milk £2 

and honey ."—Maryland Farmer. I"3 

The Bee Journal is pre-eminently above all its competitors. [sj 

It is full of fire, enterprise and vim ; it discusses the various 
questions pertaining to bee-culture with spirit and energetic 
thought; itis an honor to its Editor and to the interest which rrj 

sustains it. It has no individual axe to grind, but is the fearless 
champion of all that is useful and good ; steadfast, unwavering, 
honest ; never vascillating or swerving ; but true, as the needle to hrt 

the pole, to the interest of bee-keepers. It should be supported 
by every one interested in bees or honey.— American Grocer. 

THOMAS G. NEWMAN Si SON, Publishers, 

972 and 974 West Madison St., CHICAGO. 




THE ORIGINAL DIRECT-DRAET, OR 

BINGHAM SMOKER. 

Patented Jan. 9, 1878. Re-issued July 9, 1878. 

The Extra Large Smoker and the Extra Standard 
for 1880 will have our new extra-wide Shields, which 
entirely protect the hands and bellows from heat and 
remove the danger of burning the Angers. Practical 
Bee-Keepers will find these wide Shields an import- 
ant improvement. The Plain Standard and Little 
Wonder Smokers will be better than ever before, and 
superior to any imitation Smokers, whatever their 
size may be. 

The North American Bee-Keepers' Association 
elected the inventor of the Direct-Draft Smoker an 
honorary member for its invention. 

"Every bee-keeper needs a good smoker— it will 
pay for itself many times over during a season's ope- 
rations. We find by comparison in actual service, 
that the Bingham is the superior of all, hence we ad- 
vise its purchase ; standard or large size preferable." 
—Prom J. Oatman & Sons' Circular for 1880. 

Oxford, Ohio, September 30, 1878.— Your smoker has 
been in daily use for some months in a friend's 
apiary. He is enthusiastic in its praise, and after 
seeing how greatly it facilitates the handling of bees, 
I heartily endorse it. L. L. Langstroth. 

Raceland, La., Feb. 17, 1880.— I happened to get hold 
of one of your smokers a few days ago : it beats eve- 
rything of the sort I ever saw. I have thrown my 
other bellows smokers away in disgust. Chas. S. Larkin. 

Tuscaloosa, Ala., May 11, 1879.— 1 would as soon think of being without my 
meals as doing without a Bingham smoker. F. P. Turner. 

Depere, Wis., June 12, 1879.— Your smokers give the greatest satisfaction. My 
own has now been in constant use for three years, lighted every day and burning 
all day long during the bee season, and though I see new ones around me, I never 
wish or think of taking one. It has gone out but three times, and then from my 
own carelessness. Frances Dunham. 

ham & Hetherington Honey Knife. 

It is alarge, strong, durable knife, polished and tempered like arazor, 
and so formed and sharpened as to cut both ways, over hills and 
through hollows all the same, without dropping a cap on the honey. 
The most world-renowned, practical and scientific bee-keepers in 
Europe and America pronounce it "the best honey knife ever made." 

Lansing, Mich., Feb. 11. 1879.— After a thorough trial of your Honey 
Knife here at the College, we pronounce it decidedly superior to any 
other that we have used, though we have several of the principal 
knives made in the United States. A. J. Cook. 

Middlefleld, N. Y., Jan. 8, 1879.— I have been using your 2-inch uncap- 
ping knife the past season. For rapidity and ease in operating, they 
far excel any knife I have ever used. Its shape and beveled edges 
make it perfect for uncapping uneven and crooked combs. It works 
ii equally well with either right or left stroke, and facilitates the labor 
I fully one-half. It leaves nothing more to be desired. A. G. Murphy. 

Cherry Valley. N. Y., Jan. 5, 1879.— For my own use, I much prefer 
them to any knife I have everuncapped with, for the reason that I can 
uncap much more honey. J. E. Hetherington. 

" The past season has proven the Bingham & Hetherington Honey 
Knife far superior to all others ; we advise the purchase of no other." 
—From J. Oatman & Sons' Circular for 1880. 

Extra Large Smokers, 23^-inch. iSl.SO ; Extra Standard Smokers, 
2-inch, $1.35 ; Plain Standard Smokers. 2-inch, ifil.OO ; Little Won- 
Ifflllf der Smokers, lM-inch, TSe. ; Bingham & Hetherington Knife, SI .©©. 
If |f If wanted by mail, or singly by express, add 35c. each to prepay post- 
al' age orexpress charges. To sell again, send for doz. or half doz. rates. " 

T. F. Bingham, or Bingham & Hetherington, Otsego, Mich. 



FRIENDS ! If you are in any way interested in 

Bees or Honey! 

We will with pleasure send you a sample copy of our 

MONTHLY GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE, 

With a Descriptive Price-List of the latest improvements in 

HIVES, HONEY EXTRACTORS, ARTIFICIAL COMB, 
SECTION HONEY BOXES, 

All books and journals, and everything pertaining to bee culture. 



NOTHING ZP-AJTZEIsrTIEID. 



Simply send your address on a postal card, written plainly, to 



A. I. ROOT, Medina, Ohio. 



THE DUNHAM FOUNDATION MACHINE, 

Invented and Manufactured only by 

FrancesIDunham, Depere, Brown Co., Wis. 




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Clear Ahead !--We Lead in Smokers ! 

Our new invention of a UOTTBI^E BLAST* places our smoker far 
ahead of any in the market. Doo little says of it : "The arrangement to change 
the draft so as to make it a cold-blast after the Hire is kindled, places it ahead of 
any smoker in the market by a long way." So say all who see it. 

Every bee-keeper in the land should see an illustration and description of it 
before purchasing elsewhere. Prices— Large, 2Jrf> inch tube, $1.50 ;■ Medium, 2 inch 
tube, $1.25 ; Small, without double-blast, 75c. By mail, 25c. extraeach. 

QUINBY'S NEW BEE-KEEPING, by L. C. ROOT. 

This is the most practical work published. It contains 100 illustrations, includ- 
ing an excellent portrait of M. Quinby. Price, by mail, $1.50. 

We sell everything used by practical bee- keepers. Send for our illustrated 
Circular. 

L. C. ROOT & BRO., Mohawk, Herk. Co., N. Y. 

PERFECTION HONEY BOX, 

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The Caps enclosing the glass to form the box, are of box pasteboard, and are 
made to Bt any size Section or Prize Box used ; also to inclose 2, 3, 6 or 12 sections 
in one box if desired. Some of the advantages of this box are : the rapidity with 
which the boxes are glassed, and the honey prepared for market. The caps are 
bound with embossed paper, causing the honey to show to the best advantage. 
They are handsomely labelled in gilt, making the most attractive style of Honey 
Box on the market. There is no leakage, so that honey glassed with these Caps, 
will not draw flies more than other goods. The 2 caps fora2-lbbox weight 
ounce. Send postal for descriptive circular. Address, 

J. E. MOORE, Sup't of Byron Apiary, Byron, Genesee Co., N. Y. 

Dadant & Son. 



Colonies of Italian Bees, Imported and Home-Bred Queens, Hives, Extractors, 
the BEST COMB FOUNDATION MADE, and divers Apiarian supplies. 

We can give references in nearly every State of the "Union, and in 
Canada, and also among the most noted Apiarists of Europe. 

Circulars and samples of Foundation free. 



CHAS. DADANT & SON, 



Hamilton, Hancock Co., 111. 



HEADQUARTERS IN IRE SOUTH, 

For Bee Hives, Honey Boxes, Honey and Wax Extractors, Knives, Smokers, 
Comb Foundation, Dollar and Tested Queens, Nuclei and Full Colonies of Italian 
Bees, etc. 

Having fitted up a large shop, with an 8-horse power steam engine to run my 
saws, planing mill, and all necessary machinery to manufacture bee hives, sec- 
tions and apiarian supplies, I am now ready to fill all orders. 

Address, 

PAUL L. VIALLON, 

i BAYOU GiOTTLl, X.A.. 

REV. A. SALISBURY, 

Propagator of 

FINE QUEENS AND BEES 

. From Imported and Home-bred Mothers. The 

CT^ZPZRI^HNr BZEIE, 

In its native purity, will doubtless be introduced this year, 
and offered to the public in 1881. 

Manufacturer of Comb Foundation, 

HIVES, SURPLUS HONEY BOXES, 

QUEEN SHIPPING GAGES, Etc. 

DEALER IN ALL NECESSARY APIARY SUPPLIES. 

All work executed in good style, and at prices to suit the times. 

ig^Send for Circular. Address, 

REV. A. SALISBURY, 

Gamargo, Douglas Gounty, III. 

SEEDS FOR HONEY PLANTS, 

Always kept in stock, including 

MELILOT CLOVER, ALSIKE CLOVER, WHITE CLOVER, 

CHINESE MUSTARD, CATNIP, SUMMER RAPE, 

BORAGE, BASSWOOD, TEASEL, MOTHERWORT, 

MIGNONETTE, RESEDA GRANDIFLORA, 

SILVER HULL BUCKWHEAT 

SPIDER PLANT, CLEOME, ROCKY MOUNTAIN BEE PLANT. 

jy Send for Catalogue. Address, 

THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, 

972 and 974 W. Madison Street, Chicago, 111. 




THE BEST IS THE CHEAPEST! 

ooffuvtbereiy's 

EXCELSIOR HONEY EXTRACTOR! 

From Eight to Fourteen Dollars. 

Having made several improvements in the EXCELSIOR EXTRACTOR 
it is now offered to the Bee-Keepers of America as the MOST PERFECT 
MACHINE IN THE MARKET. The universal favor with which the EXCEL- 
SIOR EXTRACTORwas received in 1818, has induced other manufacturers to 
adopt several of its improvements. My experience and experiments of last sea- 
son, with the assistance and suggestions of skillful workmen, have enabled me to 
perfect an Extractor that cannot be excelled, and can on!y_be equaled 
by being closely imitated. 

The Excelsior is made entirely of metal, and is conse- 
quently very light, strong and durable, with lugs at the 
bottom for firmly attaching to the floor if desired. 

The strong over-motion gearing, so necessary to ease 
in running and speedy operating, was designed and is 
manufactured expressly for the Excelsior. A child 
ten years of age can operate the machine as rapidly as 
it can be supplied with combs. 

The top or cross-band, to which is attached the gear- 
ing, is wrought iron, three inches broad, with the ends 
turned down in such manner as to thoroughly brace 
and strengthen the can, and holding the basket firmly 
in an upright position. 

The Comb Basket having vertical sides, insures the 
extracting power alike for top and hottom of frames. 
The sides of the basket being movable and interchange- 
able, greatly facilitate the operation of dusting before 
and thoroughly cleaning after use if desired. 

The basket can be taken from or replaced in the can 
in a moment, there being no rusty screws to take out 
or nuts to remove. 

At the bottom of the can, and below the basket, is a 
cone or metal standard, in the top of which revolves 
the bottom pivot of the basket, thereby giving room for 
sixty or seventy pounds of honey without touching the 
basket or pivot below. I 

Nos. 3, 4 and 5 have strainers covering the canal lead- 
ing to the faucet, which obviate the delay of several 
hours in waiting for the honey to settle, and the tedious 
and wasteful process of skimming. The faucet being 
below the bottom level of the honey, renders unneces- ' 
sary the usual tipping and wrenching incident to draw- ' 
ing off the honey. These also have close-fitting metal 
covers, which entirely exclude dust, dirt, flies and bees when not in use. 

The baskets of Nos. 4 and 5 have no center rod running from top to bottom, 
which will be found very convenient by those who uncap both sid-es of the comb 
before putting in the basket, as they can be turned without removal. 

The strong iron handles placed at the sides, a little above the center, are com- 
pletely side-braced, and add much to convenience in handling. 

The wire baskets are very neat specimens of skillful workmanship, thoroughly 
hraced at every point where experience has proven it to be most requisite, and 
nothinghas been omitted that could add to its efficiency. 

The No. 4, for three frames, has a triangular basket, movable sides, no center 
rod, runs smoothly regardless of number of frames, and is fast superseding the 
demand for four-sided baskets. 

A EOWEK PRICED MACfflJfE. 

A cheaper machine heing called for by those having hut few colonies, and not 
making a specialty of bee-keeping, I have made a special size to take the Lang-: 
stroth frame, and one for the American, to sell at JS8.00 each. These have no 
covers or strainer, and are smaller than the $12.00 and $14.00 sizes, but for the 
frames named are equal to the others for effective work, and are the best cheap 
Extractors made. 

Sizes and Prices. 

No. 1.— For 2 Lang^troth frames, 10x18 inches i$10 OO 

" 2.— For 2 American frames, 13x13 inches JO OO 

•' 3.— For 2 frames, 13x20 inches or less (embracing all standard sizes).. 14 OO 
" 4.— For 3 " " " " " •■ 14 OO 

" 5.-For4 " " " " " " •■ 1« «» 

tWA Wberal discount to dealers in Bee-Keepers' Supplies and to parties order- 
ing in quantity. Address, C. C. COFFUVBERJEtT", Chicago, 111., 
Or American Bee Journal, Chicago, 111,, where samples can he seen. 




%Kztktx nthtx %immz\xthi. 

®00t'$ new$ £attDlm<i) fiir ben " ©tenenfianb. (S§ 

Ijalt gieicfymaf^igen ©tfjrttt mit alien ©egenftctnben bie fiir ben 
SSienenjMjter 3frtereffe fyah.cn. (§§ ift nitfjt nur leijrreitf), [on; 
bent autf) dufjerft trttereffant unb praftifcf). ^3rei§ in Seinroanb 
gebuttben, ^ortofrei $1.25; in ^apierumfdjlag, s £ortofrei $1. 
©eim®uljenbper@rpre§, in Seimoanb $12.00 ; papier, $9.50. 
®ev 25ienettfto(f iwt> Me %oni$Hcne, von £. 2. 
SangftrotI). $rei§ $2.00 

©etyeitmuffie &e* aHettettjtttfjt, won 9tt. Duinbn. 
^3rei§ $1.50. 

SHettCtts^ttltur, ober erfolgreidje S3e^anbfung ber SBie= 
nen, »on £t)o§. @. S'ceroman. £>iefe§ 5pampfylet fafjt SBele^ 
rungen iiber folgenbe ©egenftanbe in fid; : DertlitfjEeit be§ 
23ienenftanbe§ — |i>onig ; ^ftan^en — (Srjietjung ber £bnigin — 
^itttern — ©rfjttmrmen — SSertljeiien — SSerfe^en — ^{taltenifiren 
— (Sinfiitjrung oon ^bniginnen — 3tu§jie§en — SBienenbefjanbeln 
unb berujjigen ; meiter entljcilt eg ein ^apitel, roorin bie neuefte 
9ftetf)obe fiir bie jperritfjtung bes> |)onig§ fiir ben ^anbet befdjrie^ 
Ben ift, e£. (S§ rairb in beutfdjer unb engltfcrjer ©prcidje 
fjerauggegeben. 5)3rei§ einer jeben 3XusgaBe 40 (Jent§, porto; 
fret, ober $4.00 ba§ ®u^enb. 

A>otti^ aU 9lai)xuna mtt> SWeMsitt— oon Stomas 
@. Dcewman. 3)iefe§ ift ein ^antp^Iet oon 24 ©eiten tmb giebt 
etne fiare SDarlegung iiber SBienen unb |)onig be§ 2ntertt)um3 ; 
bte ©efc^affemjeit, Qualitdt, Ouelleu unb gubereitung oe§ 
|)omg3 fiir ben ^anbel; ^ontg nl§9ca§rung3mittel, angebenb 
nrie man ,$ponigfud)en, gormfuctjelcljen, Rubbings, ^c|aum; 
fonfect, Siffieine, u. f. w. jubereiten faun ; unb ^)onig al§ 
SDrebijin, mit oielen Orejepten. (S§ ift fiir ben (Sonfumenten 
beftimmt, unb follte oiettaufenbfcittig iiber ba§ g.anje Sanb 
jerftreut roerben. (Srfcfyeint in englifdjer unb beutftfjer ©pradje, 
unb toirb ju fotgenben $reifeu fiirjebe 9lu§gabe, per Spoft $or; 
tofrei oerfc^icft : (Sinjelne ©opien, 10(£cnt§; 15 bo., $1.00; 
100 bo., mit ^amen unb 2lbrc^e gebrucft, $5.00. 

*£>ie £)$iev$Otl &f)Cime, eine coltftanbige (Srlauterung 
ber miffenfdjafttid)en 23ienenjud)t entfyaltenb. $rei§ 20 (£cnt§ 
^ortofrei, ober brei (Sremplare fiir 50 ©ent§. 

UebettointetnbCt ©tenen ; SDcetfiobenumerfoigreict) 
bamit ju fein. 5)3rei§ 15 (Sent§, ober 5 (Sopiett fiir 50 (Sent§. 

THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, Chicago. 










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COMPRISING 

ITALIAN QUEENS, 

FULL COLONIES, 

Movable-Frame Hives, 

Honey Extractors, 

BEE VEILS, RUBBER GLOVES, 

ARTIFICIAL COMB FOUNDATION, 

BEE SMOKERS, 

Seeds for Honey Plants, 

AND 

Everything used by Bee-Keepers, for Sale by 
THOS. G. NEWMAN & SON, Chicago. 

Every Bee-Keeper should take 




Reliable x *amgg&& s '' flee 

IN THE WORLD ! 



It is the best scientific and practical Journal 
of APICULTURE ever published. The most 
successful and experienced Bee-keepers in 
Europe, as well as America, write for it. 

TERMS: $1.50 FEB, ANNUM. 

A Sample Copy sent for 10 cts. 



Address, 



THOS. G. NEWMAN & SON, 

CHICAGO, ILL. 



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